Academic Writing for International Students of Science - Jane Bottomley 2015
9.1 Referencing conventions
9 Academic and scientific conventions
Adopting common academic and scientific conventions will help the reader to follow your work more easily.
9.1 Referencing conventions
In Chapter 7, you looked at the importance of good practice when referring to sources. In this section you will examine the various conventions associated with referencing. It is very important to reference clearly in order to:
✵ demonstrate your use of the literature in the field
✵ allow a reader to find the source easily if they wish to investigate further or double check a fact
✵ avoid plagiarism
Two systems of referencing can be found in university science departments and scientific journals. In the task below, we will look at some examples.
Explorative Task (i)
Look at the journal extracts and answer the questions which follow.
Text A
In terms of heat regulation the largest terrestrial animal — the elephant — is a case in point. Owing to its enormous body mass, the small surface-to-volume ratio and the lack of sweat glands (Spearman, 1970; Hiley, 1975; Wright, 1984; Mariappa, 1986), elephants are confronted with unusual problems concerning heat dissipation and drying of the integument (Lillywhite and Stein, 1987). Control of skin temperature (Ts) is an extremely important mechanism in elephants’ temperature regulation (Phillips and Heath, 1995) and the most important thermoregulatory organs to use this pathway are the elephants’ ears. The ears of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) have a large surface-to-volume ratio as well as an extensive and prominent vascular supply, which predestines these organs for optimal heat dissipation (Wright, 1984). In conjunction with their great importance in thermoregulation, the ears are frequently termed “thermal windows” (Wright, 1984; Williams, 1990). Thermal windows are body areas responsible for heat exchange. This is achieved by modifying and controlling blood flow (via vasoconstriction and vasodilation) into these areas (Sumbera et al., 2007).
(Weissenbock et al., 2010: 182)
1) How are sources indicated?
2) How are multiple sources listed and punctuated?
3) What does et al. mean?
Text B
In subtropical Hong Kong, most of the electricity consumed in commercial buildings is used for creating a thermally and visually comfortable built-environment through air conditioning and artificial lighting. Recent work on computer energy-simulation studies for Hong Kong revealed that air-conditioning accounts for over 50% of the total electricity consumption in commercial buildings and electric lighting comes second with 20—30% [1]. Passive solar design and daylighting, which makes use of natural light to reduce electric lighting energy consumption, have long been recognized as potential energy-efficient design strategies for buildings [2,3].
(Danny et al., 2007: 1199—1200)
1) How are sources indicated?
2) How are multiple sources listed and punctuated?
Text C
The current WHO definition of health, formulated in 1948, describes health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”1 At that time this formulation was groundbreaking because of its breadth and ambition. It overcame the negative definition of health as absence of disease and included the physical, mental, and social domains. Although the definition has been criticised over the past 60 years, it has never been adapted. Criticism is now intensifying,2—5 and as populations age and the pattern of illness changes the definition may even be counterproductive.
(Huber et al., 2011)
1) How are sources indicated?
2) How are multiple sources listed and punctuated?
Referencing systems
1) Text A refers to sources using surnames and dates, e.g.
(Wright, 1984)
This is known as the Harvard system.
The name and date are usually separated by a comma.
If the reference accompanies a quotation ( 9.2), a page number is included, preceded by a colon, or in some cases a comma, e.g.
(Wright, 1984: 32)
Multiple references usually occur in chronological order separated by semicolons, e.g.
(Spearman, 1970; Hiley, 1975; Wright, 1984; Mariappa, 1986)
A source with two authors is presented with both names joined with and, e.g.
(Phillips and Heath, 1995)
Sources with more than two authors include the name of the lead author followed by et al., which means ’and others’, e.g.
(Sumbera et al., 2007)
Note that et al. is often italicised
(Sumbera et al., 2007)
2) Texts B and C use a number system to refer to sources; this is known as the Vancouver system. In practice, there is variation in the presentation of numbers.
They can occur:
in parentheses, e.g.
… electric lighting comes second with 20—30% (1).
in square brackets, e.g.
… electric lighting comes second with 20—30% [1].
as superscript numbers, e.g.
… electric lighting comes second with 20—30%.1
or with superscript numbers in round/square brackets, e.g.
… electric lighting comes second with 20—30%.[1]
Note that bracketed numbers come before punctuation marks, while superscript numbers come after any punctuation marks.
Multiple sources are separated by a comma, e.g.
… strategies for buildings [1,2].
A dash is used with a consecutive string of sources, e.g.
Criticism is now intensifying,2—5 …
Both systems occur in academic scientific writing, although the Vancouver system is more common. The type of referencing system you use will depend on guidelines issued by a particular institution or publication. What is most important is that you follow any guidelines you are given carefully, and that your references are complete, accurate and consistent.
The referencing system you use will also determine the way you present your references at the end of your text.
Explorative Task (ii)
1) Which system is being followed in these lists of references?
A
Atkins, P. (2013) What Is Chemistry? Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Davies, J. (2006) Where have all the antibiotics gone? Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Medical Microbiology, 17(5), 287—290.
Dinwoodie, J. (2010) Timber, in P. Domone and J. Illston (eds) Construction Materials: their Nature and Behaviour, (4th Edition), Oxon: Spon Press, 403—506.
Housecroft, C. and E. Constable (2010) Chemistry: An Introduction to Organic, Inorganic and Physical Chemistry, (4th Edition), Harlow: Pearson Education.
Rincon, P. (2011) How sticky tape led to the Nobel Prize, BBC, 5th October, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11478645 [accessed 4th March, 2013].
Royal Society, http://royalsociety.org [accessed 20th November, 2012].
B
1. J. Davies, Where have all the antibiotics gone? Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Medical Microbiology, 2006, 17(5), 287—290.
2. Royal Society, http://royalsociety.org [accessed 20th November, 2012].
3. J. Dinwoodie, Timber, in P. Domone and J. Illston (eds) Construction Materials: their Nature and Behaviour, (4th Edition), Oxon: Spon Press, 2010, 403—506.
4. P. Atkins, What Is Chemistry? Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
5. C. Housecroft and E. Constable, Chemistry: An Introduction to Organic, Inorganic and Physical Chemistry, (4th Edition), Harlow: Pearson Education, 2010.
6. P. Rincon, How sticky tape led to the Nobel Prize, BBC, 5th October, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11478645 [accessed 4th March, 2013].
2) What are the main differences between the two lists?
3) What do you notice about the punctuation?
4) What extra information is given for websites?
Harvard system
References are listed in alphabetical order, according to the surname of first author, whose surname must come before the first name or initial. (There is no need to reverse the other names as there is no alphabetical consideration, but some do.)
The date follows the name, at the beginning.
Vancouver system
References are listed in numerical order according to where they appear in the text (with the first name or initial followed by the surname — there is no need to reverse as there is no alphabetical consideration, but some do).
The date comes at the end, but before any volume/issue/page numbers.
Note the inclusion of the URL and the date accessed for websites.
Both the reference lists above are presented with typical punctuation and formatting regarding the use of brackets, commas, colons and italics. However, within the parameters of each system there is a certain amount of acceptable variation depending on the subject/institution/publication, for example:
✵ Some use first names, others use initials.
✵ Some reverse all names, others only the first name in a Harvard reference.
✵ Some use italics for the titles of books and journals, others do not.
✵ Some use quotation marks for article and chapter titles, others do not.
✵ Some put the date in brackets, others do not.
✵ Some separate the place of publication and the publisher with a colon, others use a comma.
The most important thing is to follow the guidelines you are given and to make sure your references are complete, accurate and consistent.
Note that some subjects have very specific conventions. See for example the absence of title, the use of standard abbreviations for journal titles, and the use of bold for the journal volume in the following references from Chemistry, following Royal Society of Chemistry guidelines:
1) R. L. Beddoes, C. Bitcon and M. W. Whitely, J. Organomet. Chem., 1991, 402, 85.
2) O. F. Koentjoro, R. Rousseau and P. J. Low, Organometalics, 2001, 20, 4502.
3) P. J. Low and M. I. Bruce, Adv. Organomet. Chem., 2001, 48, 71.
5) Identify the following in the above reference lists and note which details are included:
a) a book (with one edition)
b) a book (with several editions)
c) a chapter from a book
d) a journal article
e) a website document/article
f) a website