Marking cadence: punctuation - Navigating pages: conventions of style - Earning applause: APA writing for the academic audience

APA style and citations for dummies - Joe Giampalmi 2021

Marking cadence: punctuation
Navigating pages: conventions of style
Earning applause: APA writing for the academic audience

IN THIS CHAPTER

Marching to the beat of punctuation

Highlighting special effects

Conforming with spelling

Casing costly letters

You’re successful as an adult and student because you follow rules and fulfill responsibilities. At school you register for classes, accumulate credits, and meet course requirements. Following rules helps you navigate school and organize your life.

Your writing has similar expectations, requiring that you follow rules to guide your readers. Content may be king, but successful writing requires accurate grammar, word usage, punctuation, spelling, and other conventions. And the consequences of misuse are as costly as neglecting a course requirement.

The richness and versatility of the English language includes stylistic conventions that guide readers and orchestrate meaning, showcasing the functions of dashes and slashes, colons and semicolons, parentheses and brackets, and the contrarian ellipses.

This chapter guides you through common conventions of style and identifies APA highlights with the precision of a fork searching for blueberries in a summer fruit salad. In addition, I identify minefields and mudholes of language issues that I have seen in student writing since Star Wars first hit the big screen. You also find out about the musical beats that readers need to navigate the printed page.

If you’re obsessed with language conventions such as the evolution of the question mark, the conflicting demands of the comma, the abuses of the apostrophe, and rules for the dash, or if you have an English major friend who’s celebrating a milestone, consider Lynne Truss’ Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation (Penguin Group).

Marking cadence: punctuation

I once asked a publisher his preference on the Oxford comma (the comma before and in a series) and other optional marks of punctuation. He surprisingly responded, “If you were paying my ink bill, you would avoid every optional mark of punctuation. I could save a million dollars a year.” I learned that money drives punctuation and that punctuation rules aren’t as strict as the nuns taught me they were. In this section, you discover that money also influenced the implementation of lowercase letters. Optional punctuation marks are like free points in your professor’s gradebook: an opportunity to double down on your choices of being correct.

Punctuation, once arbitrarily aligned with the rhythm of music, offers a variety of beats to establish the cadence of writing that helps readers emphasize, de-emphasize, pause, stop, and connect meaning.

End punctuation and spacing

End punctuation (periods, question marks, and exclamation points) signals temporary stops on the printed page; it gives readers a quick refresh before moving forward.

The period as end punctuation signals the end of a sentence, a complete thought that either makes a statement or gives a command:

· Statement: The south rim of the Grand Canyon is located in Arizona.

· Command: Please assemble in the auditorium after lunch.

Other end punctuation marks are the question mark (?) and exclamation point(!):

· Have you read any Shakespeare sonnets?

· Finally, we have a return of college football!

Avoid excessive use of exclamation points, including multiple exclamation points!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

APA’s seventh edition reduced spacing after end punctuation from two spaces to one space. The spacing between the previous sentence and this sentence is an example of the new spacing — as well as end-mark spacing throughout this book. Spacing following a colon was also reduced to one space.

Comma

A comma is like a short pause in a workout, a breath in a telephone conversation, and a quick hello to a passer-by. It’s a pre-COVID-19 handshake and a brief freeze on your computer screen.

Typical uses of commas include dates, addresses, and numbers. Additionally, commas used in pairs and multiples include the following:

· Items in a series: My favorite fruits are blueberries, bananas, and grapes.

· A parenthetical word or phrase: Alyson, by the way, was introduced last.

· An appositive (an explanatory noun following a noun): Isiah, team captain, scored the winning goal.

Additional comma uses include separating clauses:

· Clauses in compound sentences joined by a conjunction: The hurricane headed toward the coast, and residents were issued mandatory evacuation notices.

· Introductory dependent clauses from the main sentence idea (independent clause): When everyone arrived, the celebration began.

· Long (four words or longer) introductory phrases: During the presentation of awards, children in the audience became restless.

· Names directly addressed: Chelsea, you left your book on the table.

APA also emphasizes using a comma to separate the author and date in an in-text citation: (Sanchez, 2020).

Most stylebooks don’t require commas for separating hours from minutes (1 hour 15 seconds) and feet from inches (3 feet 6 inches).

Semicolon and colon

A semicolon functions like a comma on steroids; a colon functions like a comma with attitude. Semicolons take on responsibilities that exceed the job description of a comma by separating complex ideas. Both specialize in making short rest stops on long journeys.

Semicolons are used to separate the following:

· Independent clauses without a conjunction: We drove to the library; our friends drove to the party.

· A series of independent clauses: The van was not damaged; no passengers were injured; no property was destroyed; and everyone felt relieved.

· Items in a series that contain clauses with commas: Prepare for your senior year in college by meeting with your advisor, department chair, and college dean; by visiting the career planning center to update your resume, interview skills, and networking skills; and by ensuring you fulfill your credit requirements and financial obligations.

The challenge of writing long sentences with clauses separated by semicolons is in maintaining parallel structure. See Chapter 6 for additional information.

· Connective words such as however, therefore, for instance, and for example when they connect two or more independent clauses: I always enjoy a warm day at the beach; however, I like to make it academically productive.

If the semicolon is your favorite punctuation mark because it handles complex problems, read about its evolution in Cecelia Watson’s Semicolon (HarperCollins). Find out why Herman Melville’s Moby Dick contains 4,000 semicolons, one every 52 words.

The colon, one of the oldest punctuation marks and used as far back as ancient Greece, was originally a slightly raised period. It was first used with the dash (:—) and represented a pause in reading text. Its current use evolved from the 1600s, when it assumed its current role between the pause of a comma and the full stop of end punctuation.

A colon’s job description includes introducing the following:

· Explanations: Home-schooled children experience three benefits: reading more independently, studying longer hours, and solving more problems.

· Examples: American Literature courses should include books by the following authors: Hemingway, Fitzgerald, Melville, and Steinbeck.

· Series: To experience a variety of cultures in the United States, consider: a luau in Hawaii, a folk festival in West Virginia, salmon fishing in Alaska, a college football game in College Station, and a play on Broadway.

· Quotations: Shakespeare wrote: “To thine own self be true.”

· Follow-up thoughts: Harrison confirmed the finding: Slides were contaminated.

Dashes and slashes

Dashes and slashes are the partisan politicians of punctuation; they interrupt and redirect the main idea of a sentence, with slashes sometimes causing more confusion than clarity. Dashes, lacking the job security of their own word processing key, can easily be replaced with a comma.

Dashes (formerly known by the pretentious virgule) come in two sizes: the en dash (—), nearly similar in appearance to the hyphen, and the em dash ():

· En dash: The en dash separates equal items.

The final score was 21—14. He lived from 1918—1985. The reference was located between pages 56—84.

· Em dash: The em dash indicates a digression or further explanation.

I recently upgraded my phone a service plan upgrade is coming next and blew up my monthly budget.

Foreign language study declining in the United States continues to grow in foreign schools.

Your education won’t be considered deficient if you use the en dash and hyphen interchangeably.

Slashes are like overdraft protection on your bank account: You don’t want to use it, but sometimes you can’t avoid it. The forward slash (/), more than two thousand years old, is used in URL addresses and to separate lines of poetry and music. The slash should seldom be seen or heard because it frequently offers confusing choices:

· If you plan to buy Max a sweatshirt, his size is small/medium/large. (Max’s size includes too many options. A gift card contains one size that fits all.)

· Max also has a pair of shoes he uses for walking/hiking/swimming/bicycling/painting. (Too many options can also result in foot problems.)

Avoid using slashes in situations like those shown here, and with “and/or.” Replace the slash with “and” or “or.”

Quotation marks

Quotation marks speak for themselves. They insist on impeccable accuracy and frequently complain of being misquoted.

Common uses of quotation marks include identifying the following:

· Speakers’ or researchers’ exact words (direct quotation): Regarding the light bulb, Thomas Edison said, I discovered 10,000 ways that that won’t work.

· Titles of periodical articles and book chapters when used within text: The sophomore’s major argument was found in the periodical article titled College Success Attributed to Overcoming Adversity.

· Partial quotations: Vince Lombardi, legendary Green Bay Packers’ coach, is credited with defining luck as preparation meeting opportunity.

· Short stories, poems, and other minor works of art: Did you read Frost’s The Road Not Taken?

APA highlights the following use of quotation marks:

· Letters and words as literary examples: Musical-sounding letters in the English language include l, m, and s. One of the most pleasant-sounding words in the English language is melody.

· Words or phrases used as “invented coinage”: Philadelphia Phillies fans who cheered their team during no-spectator games called themselves phandemics.

A quotation within a quotation is identified with single quotation marks (Carole said, My favorite Shakespeare line is All the world’s a stage ….’”). You may also notice that single quotation marks are used within news headlines.

In the preceding examples, commas and end punctuation are positioned inside quotation marks. Colons, semicolons, and ellipses are positioned outside quotation marks.

Quotation marks and quoted content represent high-maintenance content that you present to your readers. Misuse of quotations and conventions that support them, and careless inaccuracies presenting quoted content, can result in plagiarism allegations. A misused or neglected mark of punctuation or convention in this section can derail a dream.

Parentheses, brackets, and ellipses

Parentheses, brackets, and ellipses are the silent minority of punctuation, very polite but attention-seeking. They introduce themselves with an “excuse me” attitude and have much to say.

Truss’ Eats, Shoots & Leaves credits Desiderius Erasmus as the originator of parentheses, also known as brackets. Erasmus named parentheses “lunulae” because they resembled the crescent moon.

Common uses of parentheses (literally “to put beside”) include identifying the following:

· In-text citations: (Davis, 2021)

· Afterthoughts or supplemental information remotely related to the central idea: Graduating college seniors face many challenging decisions (spending gift money not being one of them), including employment options, housing arrangements, and continuing education.

· Uncommon abbreviations: The Government Printing Office (GPO) is located in Washington, D.C.

· Directional information: Economic indicators continue to progress (see Figure 7-6).

· Use of sic (identifying a misspelled word) in authoritative sources: The college newspaper reported, “The Iphone (sic) is the most creative invention of all time.”

· URL addresses: (google.com)

Outside of in-text citations, excessive parentheses can interrupt the flow of text like a fire alarm during class.

When parentheses enclose a sentence, position end punctuation within the parentheses: (What is the strongest evidence that supports global warming?) When only part of the sentence is enclosed in parentheses, punctuate outside the parentheses: When you were in Atlanta, did you visit the Center for Disease Control (CDC)?

Brackets ([]), parentheses who like to play the angles, are referred to as square brackets by APA, while parentheses are identified as round brackets. During their formative years, brackets may have experienced separation anxiety because they’re actually named left bracket and right bracket.

Brackets enclose information, as follows:

· Within parentheses: (see Topez, 2019 [vol. 2])

· Within quotations: Ralph Waldo Emerson, an American philosopher, said, “Nothing great [nor good] was ever achieved without enthusiasm.”

Brackets, an additional writer’s tool, help navigate the reader through complex research material. They have their time, place, and purpose, and they coordinate well with parentheses. If you don’t confuse parentheses and brackets, they won’t confuse you.

An ellipsis, the middle child of punctuation, marches to the beat of its own drummer. While most punctuation connects meaning and guides readers through a maze of meaning, an ellipsis says, “Something’s missing; you figure it out.”

Ellipsis marks ( … ), three dots or periods separated with spaces on both sides, show omission … and keep on rolling.

Ellipsis uses include the following:

· Continuation of similar content: The cognitive test included reciting every other letter of the alphabet (A, C, E, ).

· Omission of words in a quotation: In the following passages, the first one shows an original selection. The second passage shows how a writer quoting the original passage might use an ellipsis to signal omission of content. Notice the four periods at the end of the sentence, three indicating the ellipsis and one ending the sentence:

· A few months after taking office, Hamilton issued a detailed document called Report on Public Credit. In it he proposed to fully pay off the government’s $53.9 million debt (roughly $1.5 billion in 2019), about a quarter of which was owed to foreign creditors. Not only that, he proposed that future creditors always have first call on government revenues. A sound credit rating, he argued, was vital for establishing a stable financial system and earning international respect for the young country’s economic practices — and attracting international investments to America (Wiegand, 2020).

· Hamilton issued a detailed document called Report on Public Credit. In it he proposed to fully pay off the government’s $53.9 million debt , about a quarter of which was owed to foreign creditors. Not only that, he proposed that future creditors always have first call on government revenues. A sound credit rating, he argued, was vital for establishing a stable financial system and earning international respect. (Wiegand, 2020).