APA style and citations for dummies - Joe Giampalmi 2021

Crediting sources: general guidelines
Gaining insight: to cite or not to cite
Practicing safe cites: writing and citing sources

In this part …

Discover what to cite, when to cite, why to cite, and why not to cite — which also includes source preparation techniques such as summaries, paraphrases, and quotations.

Investigate the missing elements department: citations with unknown authors, page numbers, dates, and titles.

Remember first impressions are important, but don’t underestimate last impressions — references that coordinate citations and provide retrieval information.

Examine the long and short of DOIs and URLs and other streamlined updates in APA’s seventh edition.

Experience errors with source engagement, just as costly as errors with the other engagement.

Chapter 10. Gaining insight: to cite or not to cite

IN THIS CHAPTER

Giving credit where credit is due

Distinguishing elements

Solving the puzzle of electronic sources

Sourcing out — or sourcing in

Growing up, your mother told you many times, “Give credit where credit is due.” Her advice applies to you today as a college student. Credit is due for the sources you reference in your research papers.

Citing sources is like the college admission process. You cite sources to validate your preparation for college. Your application, interview, essay, and ACT scores show your ability to articulate your academic credentials, interact with college officials, and display literacy skills in high-stakes testing. Citing sources in a research project shows your ability to locate academic evidence, evaluate it, support it, and document it according to APA standards.

Additional justification for crediting sources includes the following:

· Adding credibility to research by showing knowledge of APA requirements

· Respecting scholarship by recognizing works of experts in the field

· Preventing plagiarism and avoiding misrepresentation

· Valuing readers by supporting an argument with reliable information in a standard academic format

· Providing a reference list with information for locating sources and following up information

· Establishing the work ethic of a scholar who values accuracy and attention to detail

Locating scholarly sources also adds diversity of support from experts in the field. For example, if you’re arguing characteristics of successful writing, would you argue your claim using references such as Jim Brogan, Molly O’Brien, Karen Shinn, and Ray Datsun? Or would you argue using references such as Ernest Hemingway, J. K. Rowling, Stephen King, and Harper Lee? You’d choose the names that add credibility to the argument, the experts.

In this chapter, I explain why to cite, what to cite, what not to cite, and how to cite. I also provide guidelines addressing questionable information to cite. (Meanwhile, Chapter 11 explains how to incorporate and engage sources into your argument.)

This chapter also addresses the following changes made in the APA seventh edition regarding citations:

· Sources with three authors or more are cited with the name of the first author followed by “et al.”

· Oral traditions and traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples are identified as a distinct source category and cited as “personal communication” requiring no reference listing.

· References to indigenous groups and tribes are capitalized.

· Avoid the phrase, “Retrieved by …,” unless the source has regular updates, such as on Wikipedia.

A citation is half the process of identifying the source origin. The other half is the full description that appears in the reference.

Differentiating between primary and secondary sources

Research sources are classified as primary and secondary — like the professors who you ask to write you recommendations. The foundation of strong research is primary sources, original information.

Your research will be supported by two kinds of data sources, primary and secondary. Some research topics are more dependent on one than the other. For example, some historical topics are more dependent on primary topics. Here is an overview of the two types:

· Primary sources are data collected by the researcher directly from the source, such as novels, art collections, diaries, letters, autobiographies, government documents, photographs, videos, and speeches.

· Secondary sources are data collected after it has been analyzed and interpreted: literary analysis, textbooks, and blog posts. Secondary data loses authority the more the information becomes removed from the primary document. If your research includes a senior project, master thesis, or similar credential-seeking requirement, emphasize primary sources.

Occasionally, secondary sources contain information unavailable in the primary source, and so the secondary source requires citing. For example, if you read in Mason that Carlson used a painting technique, you’d cite the source as (Carlson, 2019 as cited in Mason, 2020).

Crediting sources: general guidelines

Crediting sources is one of the few times in the life of a college student when credit is better than cash. APA requires that you cite “ideas, theories, or research” that “directly influenced your work.” If you read a source and reference any ideas in your work, you’re mandated to cite that source.

Cited sources must appear in the reference list; sources that appear in the reference list are required to appear in in-text citations. Not citing a source represents a serious academic violation that could result in your dismissal from school. (I discuss plagiarism and its implications in Chapter 4.) If you master the fundamentals of citing now, you’ll reduce the stress of mastering the fundamentals of plagiarism later. All errors aren’t created equal, and citation errors can disrupt an academic career.

How many sources do you cite? APA recommends citing “one or two of the most representative sources for each key point.” A traditional undergraduate research paper contains four to five major points. An additional two or three sources are required for background. If you’re required to write a review of the literature, representative of a survey of sources on the topic, expect to reference another eight to ten sources.

As you research, in addition to recording reference data (author, title, source, copyright, and [if applicable] volume number, URL, DOI, and edition), also record in-text citations as you write. (See DOI in this section’s “Citing Electronic Sources: Websites, Periodicals, Software, and Visuals.”)

The following sections focus on guidelines for sources requiring in-text citations.

Full and partial quotations

If you’re referencing an expert’s words (full sentence or partial sentence), an in-text citation is required. Here are examples of full and partial quotations:

· Full sentence quotation: “At the village of Lexington, the British force was confronted by a group of about 74 militia members under the command of John Parker” (Wiegand, 2020, p. 117).

· Partial sentence quotation: McKensey (2021) argued that children who come from homes with adult academic role models learn resilience to “overcome academic adversity” when they face challenging topics (p. 286).

Block quotations

Long quotations of 40 words or more are formatted as a “block.” APA guidelines for block quotes include the following.

· Don’t enclose a block quote within quote marks.

· Begin the block quote on a new line.

· Indent the complete block quote 0.5 inch from the left margin.

· Indent the first line of additional paragraphs an additional 0.5 inch.

· Double-space the entire block quote.

· Cite the block quote in either parenthetical or narrative style. (See the section, “Citing author-date format,” later in this chapter.)

In either style, don’t add a period at the end of a block quote.

Here is an example of a block quote:

Although this chapter explains layout and formatting of a block quote and other quotation styles (as well as summarizing and paraphrasing), Chapter 11 explains how to incorporate those strategies into the development of your argument.

When block quotations, or any quotations, contain citations, include those citations within the quotations, but don’t include those citations in the reference list.

Summarizing and paraphrasing

A summary, a shorter version of the main points of an idea, requires an in-text citation. A paraphrase, restating an idea in your own words, also requires an in-text citation. Summaries are generally longer than a paraphrase:

· Summary: Breslin (2019) explains that children can develop into successful academic students when their pre-school home experience includes

· A literacy-rich environment with adults reading and children having their own desk and bookcase

· Attendance at cultural events

· Visits to bookstores, museums, and historical locations

· Emotionally stable adults

· Paraphrase: Breslin (2019) explains that children need a stable home life with cultural and literacy experiences, and adult role models (p. 287).

APA doesn’t require page numbers in the citation with a paraphrase, but many professors prefer page numbers with paraphrases.

Statistical data within the context of research

Cite statistics within the context of their source, because sources may bias their data. For example, the view of the nutritional value of alternative meat products varies between the alternative meat industry and the meat industry. Take a look at these two examples:

· The alternative meat industry reports that their products contain ten percent less sodium than traditional meat products.

· The meat industry reports that alternative meat products contain ten percent more sodium than traditional meat products.

Terms specific to a field

When a few words are used within a source that differ from its traditional meaning, the term requires citation. Such terms are usually identified with quotation marks. For example,

The National Foundation of Educational Assessment clarified that “special student populations” in the long-term study included “gifted and talented” populations, and that they were underrepresented in the data (2015, p. 215).

Reference to “special student populations” and “gifted and talented” requires citing and identification in the reference list because these terms are quoted in the source.

Tables, Internet images, and clip art

If you didn’t create it and you use it, you’re required to cite it. Executing your word processor’s copy and paste function during your research should alert you that you need to cite.

Facts and figures that aren’t common knowledge

You’re familiar with the existence of oceans as being common knowledge, and you’ve probably seen at least one. Knowledge that the Pacific Ocean is the largest on Earth and covers 30 percent of the Earth’s surface may not be common to you, but it’s easily found uncited in general references. But more obscure statistical data unfamiliar to most readers qualifies that the fact needs to be cited. For example, if your Pacific Ocean fact includes the meaning of the word Pacific, the percentage of the Earth’s surface covered by it, and its deepest point, then you need a citation.

Common knowledge, vaguely defined as information common to most readers, doesn’t require citing. It includes uncited facts, events, and ideas that are easily available online and in encyclopedias. Here are some examples of common knowledge:

· Lansing is the capital of Michigan.

· The Great Lakes are the largest supply of fresh water in the world.

· Shakespeare wrote histories, comedies, and tragedies.

· Harvard University is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States.

· The Earth’s population in 2020 was estimated at almost 8 billion people.

· A pandemic prior to 2020 occurred in 1918.

Controversial information that contradicts generally accepted truths

Common knowledge excludes controversial factual information. For example, you would need to cite sources of conspiracies such as the following:

· The attacks on 9/11 were perpetrated by the White House.

· The landing on the moon did not occur.

· Osama bin Laden was not killed.

· Earth was invaded by aliens in 1935.

When your instincts question the validity of information, listen. You can also impress your professor by showing evidence that refutes controversial statements.

Less common information requiring citing includes examples like these:

· Another student’s work

· Papers written for another course (see Chapter 4)

· A person’s spoken ideas

No citations required

Information that doesn’t require citing includes the generation of new knowledge that follows citing a source. For example, if you reference Allen’s source explaining that participation in scholastic sports improves socialization skills, teaches respect for teammates, increases confidence, and improves grades, you may reflect on that cited information (without citing) as in the following example:

My experience playing high school sports confirms Allen’s research. When I played soccer, I became friends with teammates I never would have met. I felt confident with a larger group of students and I earned good grades. Sports provide a fun environment for learning about people.

You may have doubts about which sources to cite. When doubt daunts you, cite and sleep tight. APA warns to avoid undercitation and overcitation. Given the choice of two bad practices, most professors would prefer that you overcite rather than undercite because you’re showing you researched sources.

Is Wikipedia a creditable source for college research? The answer is both “yes” and “no.” Ask your professor. If your professor says “yes,” it’s a creditable source. If your professor says “no,” it’s not a creditable source. But by asking your professor, you’re saying that Wikipedia is easier to locate than scholarly sources. Although you can read Wikipedia for background, you should locate better sources, because your professor has higher expectations. Wikipedia is gaining popularity, but avoid it at this time.