Plurals - Spelling - Style

A manual for writers of research papers, theses, and dissertations, Ninth edition - Kate L. Turabian 2018

Plurals
Spelling
Style

20.1 Plurals

20.1.1 General Rule

20.1.2 Special Cases

20.2 Possessives

20.2.1 General Rule

20.2.2 Special Cases

20.3 Compounds and Words Formed with Prefixes

20.3.1 Compounds Used as Adjectives

20.3.2 Compounds Used as Both Nouns and Adjectives

20.3.3 Words Formed with Prefixes

20.4 Line Breaks

20.4.1 Breaks within Words

20.4.2 Breaks over Spaces and Punctuation

Model your spelling on American usage and be consistent, except in quotations, where you should usually follow the original spelling exactly (see chapter 25). When in doubt, consult a dictionary. Be aware, however, that dictionaries may differ on how to spell the same word and that some are more accurate and up-to-date than others.

The most reliable authority for spelling is Merriam-Webster. Both Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary and a larger, unabridged dictionary are available from Merriam-Webster.com (the unabridged version is available only online). For the names of people and places, consult the biographical and geographical listings in either of those resources or in Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Where Merriam-Webster offers a choice between spellings, use the following principles to select one: Where variants are separated by or, choose either one and use it consistently; where variants are separated by also, use the first. If the preferred spelling in Merriam-Webster differs from the conventional one in your discipline, follow the spelling of the discipline. For style guides in various disciplines, see the bibliography.

The spell-checking feature in most word processors can catch certain spelling errors but not others. It will normally fail to recognize, for example, that you typed lead when you meant led, or quite instead of quiet. It won’t always help with proper nouns or terms from other languages, and it may lead you to make global spelling changes that in some cases are inaccurate. A spell-checker is not a substitute for a good dictionary and careful proofreading.

This chapter offers general guidelines for spellings not found in most dictionaries. If you are writing a thesis or dissertation, your department or university may have specific requirements for spelling (including use of particular dictionaries). Those requirements are usually available from the office of theses and dissertations. If you are writing a class paper, your instructor may also ask you to follow certain principles of spelling. Review these requirements before you prepare your paper. They take precedence over the guidelines suggested here.

20.1 Plurals

20.1.1 General Rule

For most common nouns, form the plural by adding s (or es for words ending in ch, j, s, sh, x, or z). Most dictionaries give plural forms only for words that do not follow the general rule.

The general rule applies to the names of persons and to other proper nouns. If a proper noun ends in y, however, do not change the y to ie, as required for many common nouns. (Do not confuse plural forms with possessives, which are described in 20.2.)

✵ the Costellos

✵ the Frys (not the Fries)

✵ the Rodriguezes

✵ the two Germanys

20.1.2 Special Cases

20.1.2.1 COMPOUND WORDS. For compound words consisting of two nouns, make the last noun plural (usually by adding s or es).

✵ bookkeepers

✵ district attorneys

✵ actor-singers

When the compound consists of a noun followed by a prepositional phrase or adjective, make the main noun plural.

✵ sisters-in-law

✵ attorneys general

✵ men-of-war

20.1.2.2 LETTERS AND NUMERALS. In most cases, form the plurals of capital letters and numerals by adding s alone (not ’s).

✵ three As, one B, and two Cs

✵ the 1950s

✵ 767s

With lowercase letters, however, an s without an apostrophe can seem to create a different word (is) or an abbreviation (ms), so add an apostrophe. The apostrophe and s are roman even if the letter is italic (see 22.2.2).

x’s and y’s

20.1.2.3 ABBREVIATIONS. Form plurals of abbreviations without internal periods by adding s alone. If the singular form of the abbreviation ends in a period, put the s before the period. (See 24.1.3 on the punctuation of abbreviations. For academic degrees, see 24.2.3.)

✵ URLs

✵ DVDs

✵ PhDs

✵ vols.

✵ eds.

A few abbreviations have irregular plurals (see also 24.7).

✵ pp. (plural of p., page)

✵ nn. (plural of n., note)

If you are writing in the sciences and using abbreviations for units of measure (see 24.5), use the same abbreviation for both the singular and the plural.

✵ 6 kg

✵ 37 m2

20.1.2.4 TERMS IN ITALICS AND QUOTATION MARKS. Form the plural of a term in italics by adding s alone (not ’s) in roman type. Form the plural of a term in quotation marks by adding s—or, better, rephrase the sentence.

✵ two Chicago Tribunes

✵ . . . included many “To be continueds”

or, better,

✵ . . . included many instances of “To be continued”