A manual for writers of research papers, theses, and dissertations, Ninth edition - Kate L. Turabian 2018

Electronic sources
General introduction to citation practices
Source citation

The standard citation forms evolved in the age of print, but researchers now not only find their sources online but also increasingly consult them online and in a variety of electronic formats. These sources have been used long enough for researchers to have created standard citation forms adapted to their special characteristics.

15.4.1 Sources Consulted Online

15.4.1.1 INFORMATION IN CITATIONS. When you cite sources consulted online, you include many of the same pieces of information as you would for print sources. For some types of sources, such as published books and journal articles, it makes little difference what format you consult. Readers will be able to follow your citations and find the same sources in the same formats. But other types of sources can be difficult to find or subject to change, or disappear without notice. These factors may make you question the authority and reliability of a source.

✵ ▪ A lot of content found online has no identifiable author, publisher, or sponsor. This makes it the equivalent of any other anonymous source, unlikely to be authoritative or reliable enough to use without serious qualification (see 3.3.2).

✵ ▪ Online content can be revised without notice, and though some websites are meticulous about documenting revisions, many are not. Further, a revision date on one site may indicate correction of a spelling error while on another it may mark changes in factual data or claims.

✵ ▪ Online content may be simultaneously available from more than one site, some more reliable than others.

✵ ▪ Most online sources are located through a URL (uniform resource locator) or a search, but URLs come and go, and search results vary over time. You cannot always be certain that a given source will be available at the same URL months, weeks, or even days later, and its disappearance could make it difficult or impossible for you or your readers to find the content you originally consulted.

Choose online sources carefully. When information is available from multiple websites or in multiple media (print and online), consult the most reliable version available, and always cite the version you consulted. As you do your research, save a screenshot or other permanent copy of any source that is likely to change or disappear.

15.4.1.2 TWO CATEGORIES OF SOURCES. Online sources fall into two categories.

1. 1. Many online sources are like print sources in everything except medium—for example, an article published in an online journal instead of in a printed journal. Other sources of this type include online books, newspaper and magazine articles, and public documents. To cite these, begin with the standard facts of publication (author’s name, title, date, and so forth). At the end of the citation, add the URL (see 15.4.1.3) or the name of the database through which you accessed the source (see 15.4.1.4). You can find examples of how to cite such items under the relevant type of source in chapter 17 (for notes style) and chapter 19 (for author-date style).

2. 2. Other types of online sources, such as institutional or personal websites and social media, are unique to the medium and must be cited accordingly. In addition to recording each of the details relevant to the particular source, add a URL and, for undated content, an access date (see 15.4.1.5). Examples of how to cite these items appear in 17.5 (for notes style) and 19.5 (for author-date style).

15.4.1.3 URLS. For any source you consult online, you must always cite the full facts of publication in addition to a URL. If the URL changes, interested readers will often be able to find your source by searching for the author, title, and other facts of publication.

Copy the URL exactly as it appears with the source. Do not make any adjustments to capitalization. If the URL ends in a slash, include it. Do not enclose the URL in brackets. It is best not to break a URL at the end of a line, but if you need to do so, see 20.4.2 for some guidelines.

Sometimes you can find a shorter version of a very long URL. If a “permalink” or other preferred form of the URL is included along with the citation data for a source, use that rather than the URL in your browser’s address bar. Some sources are identified by a DOI (digital object identifier). URLs based on DOIs are more reliable (and often shorter) than most other types of URLs. To cite a source that includes a DOI, append the DOI to https://doi.org/ in your citation. For examples, see the sections on journal articles in figure 16.1 (for notes style) or figure 18.1 (for author-date style) and in chapters 17 and 19.

15.4.1.4 COMMERCIAL DATABASES. Many online sources, including certain books as well as articles in journals and other types of periodicals, are accessible only through a commercial database with restricted access (often through a university or other major library). If such a database lists a recommended URL along with the source, use that one instead of the one in your address bar. A URL based on a DOI, if available, is the best option (see 15.4.1.3). If no suitably short and direct URL exists, however, you may substitute the name of the database for the URL (e.g., LexisNexis Academic). For examples, see 17.1.10 and 17.4.2 (notes style) and 19.1.10 and 19.4.2 (author-date style).

15.4.1.5 ACCESS DATES. Most sources found online list either a date of publication or posting or the date the source was last modified or updated, but many do not. For those that do not, your citation must include the date that you accessed or retrieved the content in addition to the URL. An access date stands in for the date of publication and helps readers assess the source. For examples of cited access dates, see 17.5.1 and 17.9.1 (for notes style) or 19.5.1 and 19.9.1 (for author-date style). Note that some instructors in some fields may require access dates even for sources that include a date of publication or revision (check with your instructor). For this reason, it is generally a good idea to record access dates as part of your research. Citation management tools can help to automate this task.

15.4.2 Other Electronic Media

Sources consulted in other electronic media—for example, a book downloaded for a specific app or device, or a reference work published on disk—can usually be cited similarly to a source consulted online, but with the addition of information about the format rather than a URL. For examples, see 17.1.10 and 17.9.1 (for notes style) or 19.1.10 and 19.9.1 (for author-date style).

If a source is available in more than one format, consult the most reliable and authoritative version (see 3.3), and always cite the version you consulted.