Rules for writers, Tenth edition - Diana Hacker, Nancy Sommers 2021
MLA in-text citations
Documenting sources in MLA style
Writing Papers in MLA Style
In English and other humanities classes, you may be asked to use the MLA (Modern Language Association) system for documenting sources, which is set forth in the MLA Handbook, 9th edition (MLA, 2021).
MLA recommends in-text citations that refer readers to a list of works cited. A typical in-text citation names the author of the source, often in a signal phrase, and gives a page number in parentheses. At the end of the paper, the list of works cited provides publication information for each cited source; the list is alphabetized by authors’ last names (or by titles for works without authors). There is a direct connection between the in-text citation and the alphabetical listing. In the following example, that connection is highlighted.
IN-TEXT CITATION
Bioethicist David Resnik emphasizes that such policies, despite their potential to make our society healthier, “open the door to excessive government control over food, which could restrict dietary choices, interfere with cultural, ethnic, and religious traditions, and exacerbate socioeconomic inequalities” (31).
ENTRY IN THE LIST OF WORKS CITED
✵ Resnik, David. “Trans Fat Bans and Human Freedom.” The American Journal of Bioethics, vol. 10, no. 3, Mar. 2010, pp. 27—32.
For a list of works cited that includes this entry, see 58b.
List of MLA in-text citation models
✵ GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR SIGNAL PHRASES AND PAGE NUMBERS
o 1. Author named in a signal phrase
o 2. Author named in parentheses
o 3. Author unknown
o 4. Source with no page numbers
o 5. One-page source
✵ VARIATIONS ON THE GENERAL GUIDELINES
o 6. Two authors
o 7. Three or more authors
o 8. Organization as author
o 9. Authors with the same last name
o 10. Two or more works by the same author
o 11. Two or more works in one citation
o 12. Repeated citations from the same source
o 13. Encyclopedia or dictionary entry
o 14. Entire work
o 15. Selection in an anthology or a collection
o 16. Government document
o 17. Historical document
o 18. Legal source
o 19. Visual such as a table, a chart, or another graphic
o 20. Personal communication and social media
o 21. Web source
o 22. Indirect source (source quoted in another source)
✵ LITERARY WORKS AND SACRED TEXTS
o 23. Literary work or play
o 24. Verse play or poem
o 25. Sacred text
List of MLA works cited models
✵ GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR LISTING AUTHORS
o 1. Single author
o 2. Two authors
o 3. Three or more authors
o 4. Organization or company as author
o 5. No author listed
o 6. Two or more works by the same author or group of authors
o 7. Editor or translator
o 8. Author with editor or translator
o 9. Graphic narrative or other illustrated work
o 10. Author using a pseudonym (pen name) or screen name
o 11. Screen name or social media account
✵ ARTICLES AND OTHER SHORT WORKS
o 12. Basic format for an article or other short work
§ a. Print
§ b. Web
§ c. Database
o 13. Article in a journal
§ a. Print
§ b. Online journal
§ c. Database
o 14. Article in a magazine
o 15. Article in a newspaper
o 16. Editorial or opinion
o 17. Letter to the editor
o 18. Comment on an online article
o 19. Review
o 20. Interview
o 21. Article in a dictionary or an encyclopedia (including a wiki)
o 22. Letter in a collection
✵ BOOKS AND OTHER LONG WORKS
o 23. Basic format for a book
§ a. Print book or e-book
§ b. Web
§ c. Audiobook
o 24. Parts of a book (foreword, introduction, preface, or afterword)
o 25. Book in a language other than English
o 26. Entire anthology or collection
o 27. One selection from an anthology or a collection
o 28. Two or more selections from an anthology or a collection
o 29. Edition other than the first
o 30. Multivolume work
o 31. Sacred text
o 32. Dissertation
✵ WEB SOURCES
o 33. An entire website
o 34. Work from a website
§ a. Short work (article, individual web page)
§ b. Long work (book, report)
o 35. Blog post
o 36. Social media post
✵ AUDIO, VISUAL, AND MULTIMEDIA SOURCES
o 37. Podcast series or episode
o 38. Stand-alone audio segment
o 39. Film
o 40. Supplementary material accompanying a film
o 41. Video from the web
o 42. Video game
o 43. Computer software or app
o 44. TV or radio episode or program
o 45. Transcript
o 46. Live performance
o 47. Lecture or public address
o 48. Musical score
o 49. Music recording
o 50. Artwork, photograph, or other visual art
o 51. Visual such as a table, a chart, or another graphic
o 52. Cartoon or cartoon strip
o 53. Advertisement
o 54. Map
✵ GOVERNMENT AND LEGAL DOCUMENTS
o 55. Government document
o 56. Historical document
o 57. Legislative act (law)
o 58. Court case
✵ PERSONAL COMMUNICATION AND SOCIAL MEDIA
o 59. Personal letter
o 60. Email message
o 61. Text message
o 62. Course materials
VIDEO
Watch "MLA documentation style" for more tips on citing sources in MLA style.
57a MLA in-text citations
MLA in-text citations are made with a combination of signal phrases and parenthetical references. A signal phrase introduces information taken from a source (a quotation, summary, paraphrase, or fact); usually the signal phrase includes the author’s name. The parenthetical citation comes after the cited material, often at the end of the sentence. It includes at least a page number (except for unpaginated sources, such as those found on the web). In the models in this section, certain elements of the citation are underlined.
IN-TEXT CITATION
Resnik acknowledges that his argument relies on “slippery slope” thinking, but he insists that “social and political pressures” regarding food regulation make his concerns valid (31).
Readers can look up the author’s last name in the alphabetized list of works cited, where they will learn the work’s title and other publication information. If readers decide to consult the source, the page number will take them straight to the cited passage.
General guidelines for signal phrases and page numbers
Items 1—5 explain how the MLA system usually works for all sources — in print, on the web, in other media, and with or without authors and page numbers. Items 6—25 give variations on the basic guidelines.
1. Author named in a signal phrase
Ordinarily, introduce the material being cited with a signal phrase that includes the author’s name. In addition to preparing readers for the source, the signal phrase allows you to keep the parenthetical citation with the quotation’s page number brief.
According to Lorine Goodwin, a food historian, nineteenth-century reformers who sought to purify the food supply were called “fanatics” and “radicals” by critics who argued that consumers should be free to buy and eat what they want (77).
Notice that the period follows the parenthetical citation. When a quotation ends with a question mark or an exclamation point, leave the end punctuation inside the quotation mark and add a period at the end of your sentence, after the parenthetical citation.
Burgess asks a critical question: “How can we think differently about food labeling?” (51).
2. Author named in parentheses
If you do not give the author’s name in a signal phrase, put the last name in parentheses with the page number (if the source has one). Use no punctuation between the name and the page number: (Moran 351).
According to a nationwide poll, seventy-five percent of Americans are opposed to laws that restrict or put limitations on access to unhealthy foods (Neergaard and Agiesta).
3. Author unknown
If a source has no author, the works cited entry will begin with the title. In your in-text citation, either use the complete title in a signal phrase or use a short form of the title in parentheses. Titles of books and other long works are italicized; titles of articles and other short works are put in quotation marks.
As a result, kids see nearly four thousand ads per year encouraging them to eat unhealthy food and drinks (“Facts”).
NOTE: If the author is a corporation or a government agency, see items 8 and 16.
4. Source with no page numbers
Do not include a page number if a source does not provide page numbers. (When the pages of a web source are stable, as in PDF files, supply a page number in your in-text citation.)
Michael Pollan points out that “cheap food” actually has “significant costs—to the environment, to public health, to the public purse, even to the culture.”
If a source has numbered paragraphs or sections, use “par.” (or “pars.”) or “sec.” (or “secs.”) in the parentheses: (Smith, par. 4). Notice that a comma follows the author’s name. If you cite an audiovisual source (such as an online video), include a time stamp for the material you have quoted or paraphrased: (00:08:31—40).
5. One-page source
If a source is only one page long, do not include the page number in your in-text citation. You should, however, include the page number in your works cited list entry.
IN-TEXT CITATION FOR ONE-PAGE SOURCE
Sarah Conly uses John Stuart Mill’s “harm principle” to argue that citizens need their government to intervene to prevent them from taking harmful actions — such as driving too fast or buying unhealthy foods — out of ignorance of the harm they can do.
ENTRY IN THE WORKS CITED LIST
Conly, Sarah. “Three Cheers for the Nanny State.” The New York Times, 25 Mar. 2013, p. A23.
Variations on the general guidelines
This section describes the MLA guidelines for handling a variety of situations not covered in items 1—5.
6. Two authors
Name both authors in a signal phrase, as in the following example, or include their last names in the parenthetical citation: (Gostin and Gostin 214).
As legal scholars Gostin and Gostin explain, “[I]nterventions that do not pose a truly significant burden on individual liberty” are justified if they “go a long way towards safeguarding the health and well-being of the populace” (214).
7. Three or more authors
In a parenthetical citation, give the first author’s name followed by “et al.” (Latin for “and others”). In a signal phrase, give the first author’s name followed by a phrase such as “and others.”
The clinical trials were extended for two years, and only after results were reviewed by an independent panel did the researchers publish their findings (Blaine et al. 35).
Researchers Blaine and others note that clinical trial results were reviewed by an independent panel (35).
8. Organization as author
When the author is a corporation or an organization, name that author either in the signal phrase or in the parenthetical citation. (For a government agency as author, see item 16.)
The American Diabetes Association estimates that the cost of diagnosed diabetes in the United States in 2012 was $245 billion.
In the list of works cited, the American Diabetes Association is treated as the author and alphabetized under A. When you give the organization name in the text, spell out the name; when you use it in parentheses, shorten the name to the first noun and any preceding adjectives, removing any articles (A, An, The).
The cost of diagnosed diabetes in the United States in 2012 has been estimated at $245 billion (American Diabetes).
9. Authors with the same last name
If your list of works cited includes works by two or more authors with the same last name, include the author’s first name in the signal phrase or first initial in the parentheses.
One approach to the problem is to introduce nutrition literacy at the elementary level in public schools (E. Chen 15).
10. Two or more works by the same author
In addition to the author’s name, mention the title of the work in the signal phrase or include a short version of the title in the parentheses.
The American Diabetes Association tracks trends in diabetes across age groups. In 2012, more than 200,000 children and adolescents had diabetes (“Fast Facts”). Because of an expected dramatic increase in diabetes in young people over the next forty years, the association encourages “strategies for implementing childhood obesity prevention programs and primary prevention programs for youth at risk of developing type 2 diabetes” (“Number”).
Titles of articles and other short works are placed in quotation marks; titles of books and other long works are italicized.
In the rare case when both the author’s name and a short title must be given in parentheses, separate them with a comma.
Researchers have estimated that “the number of youth with type 2 [diabetes] could quadruple and the number with type 1 could triple” by 2050, “with an increasing proportion of youth with diabetes from minority populations” (American Diabetes, “Number”).
11. Two or more works in one citation
To cite more than one source in the parentheses, list the authors (or titles) in alphabetical order and separate them with semicolons.
The prevalence of early-onset type 2 diabetes has been well documented (Finn 68; Sharma 2037; Whitaker 118).
12. Repeated citations from the same source
If you cite a source more than once in a paragraph, you may omit the author’s name after the first mention as long as it is clear that you are still referring to the same source. Later citations may include only the page number.
Family expectations are at the heart of Everything I Never Told You, a debut novel in which a daughter shrinks from a mother who forces her to read books on science and medicine “to inspire her, to show her what she could accomplish” (Ng 73). But teenage Lydia commits herself to standing up to her overbearing mother, promising that “she will tell her mother: enough” (274).
13. Encyclopedia or dictionary entry
When an encyclopedia or dictionary entry does not have an author, mention the word or entry and give the page number on which the entry may be found.
The word crocodile has a complex etymology (“Crocodile” 139).
14. Entire work
Use the author’s name in a signal phrase or a parenthetical citation. There is no need to use a page number.
Pollan explores the issues surrounding food production and consumption from a political angle.
15. Selection in an anthology or a collection
Put the name of the author of the selection (not the editor of the anthology) in the signal phrase or the parentheses.
In “How to Write Iranian-America, or the Last Essay,” Khakpour details degrading experiences with English language instructors “who look to you with the shine of love but the stench of pity” (3).
In the list of works cited, the work is alphabetized under Khakpour, the author of the essay, not under the name of the editor of the anthology. (See item 27 in 57b.)
16. Government document
In a signal phrase, include the name of the agency or governing body as given in the works cited list. In a parenthetical citation, shorten the name.
In fact, the amount of money the United States spends to treat chronic illnesses is increasing so rapidly that the Centers for Disease Control has labeled chronic disease “the public health challenge of the 21st century” (National Center 1).
If you cite more than one agency or department from the same government in your essay, you may choose to standardize the names by beginning with the name of the government (see item 55 in 57b). In that case, when shortening names of government agencies, give enough of the name to differentiate the authors: (United States, Department of Transportation); (United States, Environmental Protection). See 58b for an essay that uses standardized government authors.
17. Historical document
For a historical document, such as the Constitution of the United States or the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, provide the document title, neither italicized nor in quotation marks, along with relevant article and section numbers. In parenthetical citations, use abbreviations such as “art.” and “sec.”
While the Constitution provides for the formation of new states (art. 4, sec. 3), it does not explicitly allow or prohibit the secession of states.
Cite other historical documents as you would any other work, by the first element in the works cited entry (see item 56 in 57b).
18. Legal source
For a legislative act (law) or court case, name the act or case either in a signal phrase or in parentheses. Italicize the names of cases but not the names of acts. (See also items 57 and 58 in 57b.)
The CARES Act of 2020 provided loans for small businesses.
Dred Scott v. Sandford, which concluded that both free and enslaved Black people could not be citizens of the United States, may have been the US Supreme Court’s worst decision.
19. Visual such as a table, a chart, or another graphic
To cite a visual that has a figure number in the original source, use the abbreviation “fig.” and the number in place of a page number in your parenthetical citation: (Manning, fig. 4). If you refer to the figure in your text, spell out the word “figure.”
To cite a visual that appears in a print source without a figure number, use the visual’s title or a description in your text and cite the author and page number as for any other source.
For a visual not in a print source, identify the visual in your text and then in parentheses use the first element in the works cited entry: the artist’s or photographer’s name or the title of the work. (See items 50—54 in 57b.)
Photographs such as Woman Aircraft Worker (Bransby) and Women Welders (Parks) demonstrate the US government’s attempt to document the contributions of women during World War II.
20. Personal communication and social media
Cite a personal letter, a personal interview, an email message, or a social media post by the name listed in the works cited entry, as you would for any other source. Identify the type of source in your text if you think it is necessary for clarity. (See items 36 and 59—62 in 57b.)
21. Web source
Your in-text citation for a source from the web should follow the same guidelines as for other sources. If the source lacks page numbers but has numbered paragraphs, sections, or divisions, use those numbers with the appropriate abbreviation in your parenthetical citation: “par.,” “sec.,” “ch.,” “pt.,” and so on. Do not add such numbers if the source itself does not use them; simply give the author or title in your in-text citation.
Sanjay Gupta, CNN chief medical correspondent, explains that “limited access to fresh, affordable, healthy food” is one of America’s most pressing health problems.
22. Indirect source (source quoted in another source)
When a writer’s or a speaker’s quoted words appear in a source written by someone else, begin the parenthetical citation with the abbreviation “qtd. in.” In the following example, Gostin and Gostin are the authors of the source given in the works cited list; their work contains a quotation by Beauchamp.
Public health researcher Dan Beauchamp has said that “public health practices are communal in nature, and concerned with the well-being of the community as a whole and not just the well-being of any particular person” (qtd. in Gostin and Gostin 217).
Literary works and sacred texts
Literary works and sacred texts are usually available in a variety of editions. Your list of works cited will specify which edition you are using, and your in-text citation will usually consist of a page number from the edition you consulted as for any other work. When possible, give additional information — such as book parts, play divisions, or line numbers — so that readers can locate the cited passage in any edition of the work, as in the examples below.
23. Literary work or play
If a literary work has numbered divisions, include the page number followed by a semicolon and the section, part, or chapter number(s). For a play without line numbers, include the act/and or scene numbers after the page number: (37; sc. 1).
In utter despair, Dostoyevsky’s character Mitya wonders aloud about the “terrible tragedies realism inflicts on people” (376; bk. 8, ch. 2).
24. Verse play or poem
For verse plays, give act, scene, and line numbers that can be located in any edition of the work. Use arabic numerals and separate the numbers with periods.
In Shakespeare’s King Lear, Gloucester learns a profound lesson from a tragic experience: “A man may see how this world goes / with no eyes” (4.2.148—49).
For a poem, cite the part, stanza, and line numbers, if it has them, separated by periods.
The Green Knight claims to approach King Arthur’s court “because the praise of you, prince, is puffed so high, / And your manor and your men are considered so magnificent” (1.12.258—59).
For poems that are not divided into numbered parts or stanzas, use line numbers. For the first reference, use the word “lines”: (lines 5—8). Thereafter use just the numbers: (12—13).
25. Sacred text
The first time you cite the work, give the title of the work as in the works cited entry, followed by the book, chapter, and verse (or their equivalent), separated with periods. Common abbreviations for books of the Bible are acceptable in a parenthetical citation. Omit the work’s title from the parentheses in all citations after the first.
Consider the words of Solomon: “If your enemy is hungry, give him bread to eat; and if he is thirsty, give him water to drink” (Oxford Annotated Bible, Prov. 25.21).
The title of a sacred work is italicized when it refers to a specific edition of the work, as in the preceding example. If you refer to the book in a general sense in your text, neither italicize it nor put it in quotation marks.
The Bible and the Qur’an provide allegories that help readers understand how to lead a moral life.