Rules for writers, Tenth edition - Diana Hacker, Nancy Sommers 2021
Evaluate ethical, logical, and emotional appeals as a reader
Reading arguments
Academic Reading and Writing
Ancient Greek rhetoricians distinguished among three kinds of appeals used to influence readers: ethical, logical, and emotional. As you evaluate arguments, identify these appeals and question their effectiveness. Are they appropriate for the audience and the argument? Are they balanced and legitimate or lopsided and misleading?
EVALUATING ETHICAL, LOGICAL, AND EMOTIONAL APPEALS AS A READER
Ethical appeals (ethos)
Ethical arguments, also known as credibility arguments, call upon a writer’s character, knowledge, and authority. Ask questions such as the following when you evaluate the ethical appeal of an argument.
✵ Is the writer informed and trustworthy? How does the writer establish authority?
✵ Does the writer use sources knowledgeably and responsibly?
✵ How does the writer describe the views of others and deal with opposing views?
Logical appeals (logos)
Reasonable arguments appeal to readers’ sense of logic, rely on evidence, and use inductive and deductive reasoning. Ask questions such as the following to evaluate the logical appeal of an argument.
✵ Is the evidence sufficient, representative, and relevant?
✵ Is the reasoning sound?
✵ Does the argument contain any logical fallacies or unwarranted assumptions?
✵ Are there any missing or mistaken premises?
Emotional appeals (pathos)
Emotional arguments appeal to readers’ beliefs and values. Ask questions such as the following to evaluate the emotional appeal of an argument.
✵ What values or beliefs does the writer address, either directly or indirectly?
✵ Are the emotional appeals legitimate and fair?
✵ Does the writer oversimplify or dramatize an issue?
✵ Do the emotional arguments highlight or shift attention away from the evidence?
Advertising makes use of ethical, logical, and emotional appeals to persuade consumers to buy a product or embrace a brand. This Patagonia ad uses ethos; it makes an ethical appeal with its copy that invites customers to rethink their purchasing practices.
EXERCISE 6-1
In the following paragraph, identify the type of appeal used in each sentence that ends with three choices: ethos (ethical appeal), logos (logical appeal), or pathos (emotional appeal).
Elderspeak, the use of pet names such as “dear” and “sweetie” directed toward older adults, is generally intended as an endearment. However, the use of such language suggests a view of seniors as childlike or cognitively impaired. It should be no surprise, then, that older adults find these pet names condescending and demeaning (ethos / logos / pathos). Unfortunately, the effects of elderspeak go far beyond insulting older adults. Health care professionals have found that residents in nursing facilities, even those with dementia, respond to patronizing language by becoming uncooperative, aggressive, or depressed. In a study published in the American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Dementias, Ruth Herman and Kristine L. Williams reported that older adults responded to elderspeak by resisting care, yelling, or crying (“Elderspeak’s Influence”) (ethos / logos / pathos). Surprisingly, despite widely published research on the negative effects of elderspeak, the worst offenders are health care workers, the very people we trust to treat our elderly family members with respect and dignity — and the very people who are old enough to know better (ethos / logos / pathos).