Rules for writers, Tenth edition - Diana Hacker, Nancy Sommers 2021

View your audience as a panel of jurors
Writing arguments
Academic Reading and Writing

As you build your argument, think about how you will appeal to your audience. It is useful to envision your audience as skeptical readers who, like a panel of jurors, will make up their minds after listening to all sides of the argument. To construct a convincing argument, you need to establish your credibility (ethos) and appeal to your readers’ sense of logic and reason (logos) as well as to their values and beliefs (pathos). The box below will help you do so.

USING ETHICAL, LOGICAL, AND EMOTIONAL APPEALS AS A WRITER

Ethical appeals (ethos)

To accept your argument, a reader must see you as trustworthy, fair, and reasonable. When you acknowledge alternative positions, you build common ground with readers and gain their trust by showing that you are knowledgeable. And when you use sources responsibly and respectfully, you inspire readers’ confidence in your judgment.

However, not everyone agrees. Critics point out, rightly so, that eliminating grades in academic environments would require massive system-wide rethinking.

Logical appeals (logos)

To persuade readers, you need to appeal to their sense of logic and reason. When you provide evidence, you offer readers logical support for your argument. And when you clarify assumptions and avoid logical fallacies, you appeal to readers’ desire for reason.

A recent study showed that an overemphasis on grades — and not learning — has led eighty-seven percent of the study participants to cheat on or consider cheating on an exam.

Emotional appeals (pathos)

To establish common ground with readers, you need to appeal to their beliefs and values as well as to their minds. When you offer vivid examples, surprising statistics, or compelling visuals, you engage readers in your argument. And when you balance emotional appeals with logical appeals, you highlight the human dimension of an issue to show readers why they should care about your argument.

Why continue to promote a culture of fear and intimidation with report-card Fridays, days when American students are concerned less with what they’ve learned than they are with how they’ve scored?

ACADEMIC WRITING Academic audiences expect your writing to be assertive and confident. You can create an assertive tone by acknowledging different positions and supporting your ideas with specific evidence.