Rules for writers, Tenth edition - Diana Hacker, Nancy Sommers 2021

Use the right words. (Glossary of usage)
Find the exact words
Clarity

This glossary includes words commonly confused (such as accept and except), words commonly misused (such as anxious), and words and phrases that are nonstandard (such as irregardless). It also lists words that are often appropriate in speech but may be inappropriate in academic writing.

✵ accept, except Accept is a verb meaning “to receive.” Except is usually a preposition meaning “excluding.” I will accept all the packages except that one. Except is also a verb meaning “to exclude.” Please except that item from the list.

✵ advice, advise Advice is a noun, advise a verb. We advise you to follow Hector’s advice.

✵ affect, effect Affect is usually a verb meaning “to influence.” Effect is usually a noun meaning “result.” The drug did not affect the disease, and it had adverse side effects. Effect can also be a verb meaning “to bring about.” Only the president can effect such a dramatic change.

✵ agree to, agree with Agree to means “to give consent to.” Agree with means “to be in accord with” or “to come to an understanding with.” He agrees with me about the need for change, but he won’t agree to my plan.

✵ all ready, already All ready means “completely prepared.” Already means “previously.” Susan was all ready for the concert, but her friends had already left.

✵ all together, altogether All together means “everyone or everything in one place.” Altogether means “entirely.” We were not altogether certain that we could bring the family all together for the reunion.

✵ allude To allude to something is to make an indirect reference to it. Do not use allude to mean “to refer directly.” In his lecture, the professor referred (not alluded) to several pre-Socratic philosophers.

✵ allusion, illusion An allusion is an indirect reference. An illusion is a misconception or false impression. Did you catch my allusion to Shakespeare? Mirrors give the room an illusion of depth.

✵ a lot A lot is two words. Do not write alot. Sam lost a lot of weight. See also lots, lots of.

✵ among, between See between, among.

✵ amount, number Use amount with quantities that cannot be counted; use number with those that can. This recipe calls for a large amount of sugar. We have a large number of toads in our garden.

✵ anyone, any one Anyone, an indefinite pronoun, means “any person at all.” Any one, the pronoun one preceded by the adjective any, refers to a particular person or thing in a group. Anyone from the winning team may choose any one of the prizes on display.

✵ anyplace Anyplace is informal. In formal writing, use anywhere.

✵ as Do not use as to mean “because” if there is any chance of ambiguity. We canceled the picnic because (not as) it began raining. As here could mean either “because” or “when.”

✵ awhile, a while Awhile is an adverb; it can modify a verb, but it cannot be the object of a preposition such as for. The two-word form a while is a noun preceded by an article and therefore can be the object of a preposition. Stay awhile. Stay for a while.

✵ being as, being that Being as and being that are nonstandard expressions. Write because instead. Because (not Being as) I slept late, I had to skip breakfast.

✵ beside, besides Beside is a preposition meaning “at the side of” or “next to.” Annie sleeps with a flashlight beside her bed. Besides is a preposition meaning “except” or “in addition to.” No one besides Terrie can have that ice cream. Besides is also an adverb meaning “in addition.” I’m not hungry; besides, I don’t like ice cream.

✵ between, among Ordinarily, use among with three or more entities, between with two. The prize was divided among several contestants. You have a choice between carrots and beans.

✵ bring, take Use bring when an object is being transported toward you, take when it is being moved away. Please bring me a glass of water. Please take these forms to Mr. Scott.

✵ can, may Can is traditionally reserved for ability, may for permission. Can you speak French? May I help you?

✵ capital, capitol Capital refers to a city, capitol to a building where lawmakers meet. Capital also refers to wealth or resources. The residents of the state capital protested plans to close the streets surrounding the capitol.

✵ cite, site Cite means “to quote as an authority or example.” Site is usually a noun meaning “a particular place.” He cited the zoning law in his argument against the proposed site of the gas station. Locations on the Internet are usually referred to as sites (short for websites). The library’s site now includes a chat feature.

✵ compare to, compare with Compare to means “to represent as similar.” She compared him to a wild stallion. Compare with means “to examine similarities and differences.” The study compared the language ability of apes with that of dolphins.

✵ complement, compliment Complement is a verb meaning “to go with or complete” or a noun meaning “something that completes.” As a verb, compliment means “to flatter”; as a noun, it means “flattering remark.” Her skill at rushing the net complements his skill at volleying. Min’s flower arrangements receive many compliments.

✵ conscience, conscious Conscience is a noun meaning “moral principles.” Conscious is an adjective meaning “aware or alert.” Let your conscience be your guide. Were you conscious of his love for you?

✵ continual, continuous Continual means “repeated regularly and frequently.” She grew weary of the continual telephone calls. Continuous means “extended or prolonged without interruption.” The broken siren made a continuous wail.

✵ council, counsel A council is a deliberative body, and a councilor is a member of such a body. Counsel usually means “advice” and can also mean “lawyer”; a counselor is one who gives advice or guidance. The councilors met to draft the council’s position paper. The pastor offered wise counsel to the troubled teenager.

✵ data Data is a plural noun technically meaning “facts or propositions.” But data is increasingly being accepted as a singular noun. The new data suggest (or suggests) that our theory is correct. (The singular datum is rarely used.)

✵ different from, different than Ordinarily, write different from. Your sense of style is different from Jim’s. However, different than is acceptable to avoid an awkward construction. Please let me know if your plans are different than (to avoid from what) they were six weeks ago.

✵ disinterested, uninterested Disinterested means “impartial, objective”; uninterested means “not interested.” We sought the advice of a disinterested counselor to help us solve our problem. Mark was uninterested in anyone’s opinion but his own.

✵ e.g. When writing sentences, replace the Latin abbreviation e.g. with its English equivalent: for example or for instance.

✵ emigrate from, immigrate to Emigrate means “to leave one country or region to settle in another.” In 1903, my great-grandfather emigrated from Russia to escape the religious pogroms. Immigrate means “to enter another country and reside there.” More than fifty thousand Bosnians immigrated to the United States in the 1990s.

✵ etc. Avoid ending a list with etc. It is more emphatic to end with an example, and in most contexts readers will understand that the list is not exhaustive. When you don’t wish to end with an example, and so on is more graceful than etc.

✵ everyone, every one Everyone is an indefinite pronoun. Every one, the pronoun one preceded by the adjective every, means “each individual or thing in a particular group.” Every one is usually followed by of. Everyone wanted to go. Every one of the missing books was found.

✵ except See accept, except.

✵ explicit, implicit Explicit means “expressed directly” or “clearly defined”; implicit means “implied, unstated.” I gave him explicit instructions not to go swimming. My mother’s silence indicated her implicit approval.

✵ farther, further Farther usually describes distances. Further usually suggests quantity or degree. Chicago is farther from Miami than I thought. I would be grateful for further suggestions.

✵ fewer, less Use fewer for items that can be counted; use less for items that cannot be counted. Fewer people are living in the city. Please put less sugar in my tea.

✵ firstly Firstly sounds pretentious, and it leads to the ungainly series firstly, secondly, thirdly, and so on. Write first, second, third instead.

✵ further See farther, further.

✵ good, well Good is an adjective, well an adverb. (See 26a, 26b, and 26c.) He hasn’t felt good about his game since he sprained his wrist last season. She performed well on the uneven parallel bars.

✵ hanged, hung Hanged is the past-tense and past-participle form of the verb hang meaning “to execute.” The prisoner was hanged at dawn. Hung is the past-tense and past-participle form of the verb hang meaning “to fasten or suspend.” The stockings were hung by the chimney with care.

✵ hopefully Hopefully means “in a hopeful manner.” We looked hopefully to the future. Some usage experts object to the use of hopefully as a sentence adverb on grounds of clarity. To be safe, avoid using hopefully in sentences such as the following: Hopefully, your son will recover soon. Instead, indicate who is doing the hoping: I hope that your son will recover soon.

✵ however It is acceptable to start a sentence with the conjunctive adverb however, but be careful to place the word in your sentence according to your intended meaning and emphasis. All of the following sentences are correct. Pam decided, however, to attend the lecture. However, Pam decided to attend the lecture. (She had been considering other activities.) Pam, however, decided to attend the lecture. (Unlike someone else, Pam chose to attend the lecture.) (See 33f.)

✵ hung See hanged, hung.

✵ i.e. When writing sentences, use in other words or that is rather than the Latin abbreviation i.e. to introduce a clarifying statement. Exposure to borax usually causes only mild skin irritation; in other words (not i.e.), it’s not usually toxic.

✵ if, whether Use if to express a condition and whether to express alternatives. If you go on a trip, whether to Idaho or Italy, remember to bring identification.

✵ illusion See allusion, illusion.

✵ immigrate See emigrate from, immigrate to.

✵ imply, infer Imply means “to suggest or state indirectly”; infer means “to draw a conclusion.” Jonathan implied that he knew all about databases, but the interviewer inferred that John was inexperienced.

✵ in, into In indicates location or condition; into indicates movement or a change in condition. They found the lost letters in a box after moving into the house.

✵ irregardless Irregardless is nonstandard. Use regardless.

✵ kind of, sort of Avoid using kind of or sort of to mean “somewhat.” The movie was somewhat (not sort of) boring. Do not put a after either phrase. That kind of (not kind of a) movie bores me.

✵ lay, lie See lie, lay.

✵ lead, led Lead is a metallic element; it is a noun. Led is the past tense of the verb lead. He led me to the treasure.

✵ less See fewer, less.

✵ lie, lay Lie is an intransitive verb meaning “to recline or rest on a surface.” Its forms are lie, lay, lain. Lay is a transitive verb meaning “to put or place.” Its forms are lay, laid, laid. I’m going to lay my phone on the picnic table and lie in the hammock.

✵ like, as Like is a preposition, not a subordinating conjunction. It can be followed only by a noun or a noun phrase. As is a subordinating conjunction that introduces a subordinate clause. In casual speech, you may say She looks like she hasn’t slept. But in academic writing, use as. She looks as if she hasn’t slept. (See also 47f and 47g.)

✵ loose, lose Loose is an adjective meaning “not securely fastened.” Lose is a verb meaning “to misplace” or “to not win.” Did you lose all your loose change?

✵ lots, lots of Lots and lots of are informal substitutes for many, much, or a lot. Avoid using them in formal writing.

✵ may See can, may.

✵ maybe, may be Maybe is an adverb meaning “possibly.” Maybe the sun will shine tomorrow. May be is a verb phrase. Tomorrow may be brighter.

✵ number See amount, number.

✵ of Use the verb have, not the preposition of, after the verbs could, should, would, may, might, and must. They must have (not must of) left early.

✵ off of Off is sufficient. Omit of. The ball rolled off (not off of) the table.

✵ passed, past Passed is the past tense of the verb pass. Ann passed me another slice of cake. Past usually means “belonging to a former time” or “beyond a time or place.” Our past president spoke until past midnight. The hotel is just past the next intersection.

✵ precede, proceed Precede means “to come before.” Proceed means “to go forward.” As we proceeded up the mountain path, we noticed fresh tracks in the mud, evidence that a group of hikers had preceded us.

✵ principal, principle Principal is a noun meaning “the head of a school or an organization” or “a sum of money.” It is also an adjective meaning “most important.” Principle is a noun meaning “a basic truth or law.” The principal expelled her for three principal reasons. We believe in the principle of equal justice for all.

✵ quotation, quote Quotation is a noun; quote is a verb. Avoid using quote as a shortened form of quotation. Her quotations (not Her quotes) are appearing in various social media channels.

✵ raise, rise Raise is a transitive verb meaning “to move or cause to move upward.” It takes a direct object. I raised the shades. Rise is an intransitive verb meaning “to go up.” Heat rises.

✵ real, really Real is an adjective; really is an adverb. Real is sometimes used informally as an adverb, but avoid this use in formal writing. She was really (not real) angry.

✵ reason why The expression reason why is redundant. The reason (not The reason why) Jones lost the election is clear.

✵ respectfully, respectively Respectfully means “showing or marked by respect.” Respectively means “each in the order given.” He respectfully submitted his opinion to the judge. Sofia, Henry, and Jesse were a butcher, a baker, and a lawyer, respectively.

✵ set, sit Set is a transitive verb meaning “to put” or “to place.” Its past tense is set. Sit is an intransitive verb meaning “to be seated.” Its past tense is sat. She set the dough in a warm corner of the kitchen. The cat sat in the doorway.

✵ since Do not use since to mean “because” if there is any chance of ambiguity. Because (not Since) we won the game, we have been celebrating with pizza. Since here could mean either “because” or “from the time that.”

✵ site See cite, site.

✵ sometime, some time, sometimes Sometime is an adverb meaning “at an indefinite time.” Some time is the adjective some modifying the noun time and means “a period of time.” Sometimes is an adverb meaning “at times, now and then.” I’ll see you sometime soon. I haven’t lived there for some time. Sometimes I see him at work.

✵ suppose to Suppose to is nonstandard for supposed to. I am supposed to (not suppose to) be there by noon.

✵ sure and Write sure to. We were all taught to be sure to (not sure and) look both ways before crossing a street.

✵ take See bring, take.

✵ than, then Than is a conjunction used in comparisons; then is an adverb denoting time. That pizza is more than I can eat. Tom laughed, and then we recognized him.

✵ that See who, which, that.

✵ that, which Many writers reserve that for restrictive clauses, which for nonrestrictive clauses. Restaurants that allow pets are few in number. Restaurants, which generally don’t allow pets, must follow strict health codes. (See 33e.)

✵ there, their, they’re There is an adverb specifying place; it is also an expletive (placeholder). Adverb: Sylvia is sitting there patiently. Expletive: There are two plums left. Their is a possessive pronoun. Fred and Jane finally washed their car. They’re is a contraction of they are. They’re later than usual today.

✵ to, too, two To is a preposition; too is an adverb; two is a number. Too many of your shots slice to the left, but the last two were just right.

✵ toward, towards Toward and towards are generally interchangeable, although toward is preferred in American English.

✵ try and Try and is nonstandard for try to. The teacher asked us all to try to (not try and) write an original haiku.

✵ unique Avoid expressions such as most unique, more straight, less perfect, very round. Either something is unique or it isn’t. It is illogical to suggest degrees of uniqueness. (See 26d.)

✵ wait for, wait on Wait for means “to be in readiness for” or “to await.” Wait on means “to serve.” We’re waiting for (not waiting on) Ruth to take us to the museum.

✵ weather, whether The noun weather refers to the state of the atmosphere. Whether is a conjunction referring to a choice between alternatives. We wondered whether the weather would clear.

✵ well, good See good, well.

✵ which See that, which and who, which, that.

✵ while Avoid using while to mean “although” or “whereas” if there is any chance of ambiguity. Although (not While) Gloria lost money in the slot machine, Tanya won money at roulette. Here While could mean either “although” or “at the same time that.”

✵ who, which, that Do not use which to refer to persons. Use who instead. That, though generally used to refer to things, may be used to refer to a particular group of people. The player who (not that or which) made the basket at the buzzer was named MVP. The team that scores the most points in this game will win the tournament.

✵ who, whom Who is used for subjects and subject complements; whom is used for objects. Who are the candidates for this year’s scholarship? The candidates, whom I met with yesterday, are impressive. (See 25.)

✵ who’s, whose Who’s is a contraction of who is; whose is a possessive pronoun. Who’s ready for more popcorn? Whose coat is this? (See 37b and 37c.)

✵ would of Would of is nonstandard for would have. She would have (not would of) had a chance to play if she had arrived on time.

✵ your, you’re Your is a possessive pronoun; you’re is a contraction of you are. Is that your new bike? You’re in the finals. (See 37b, 37c, and 47b.)