Write Right - Jan Venolia 2001

Coming to terms with terms
The basics

Chapter 1: Coming to terms with terms

Parts of Speech

The Elements of a Sentence

More About Verbs

More About Pronouns

1. Coming to terms with terms

Words are all we have.

—Samuel Beckett

Recently, a friend was fretting that she didn’t remember what predicates were. I assured her that you don’t have to be able to define a grammatical term in order to use it correctly. Terminology is just a tool—a handy way to refer to the elements of writing. It’s a lot easier to say “predicate” than “a word or group of words that makes a statement or asks a question about the subject of a sentence.”

If you have only a few holes in your grammar vocabulary, skip this chapter now and refer to it as needed. But if you want a thorough review of grammatical terms, begin right here.

Parts of speech

Let’s start by defining the eight parts of speech: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, conjunction, preposition, pronoun, and interjection. Then we’ll look at how they function in sentences.

Noun: n., a word that names a person, place, thing, quality, or act.

The wise talk because they have something to say; fools because they have to say something.—Plato

If you can put a, an, or the in front of a word, it’s a noun.

Proper nouns identify specific persons, places, or things.

Taj Mahal, Halloween, Aristotle, Cairo, Titanic

Common nouns are ordinary, run-of-the-mill nouns.

kitten, bravery, shoelace, letter, honesty

Nouns can be concrete (toenail, tinsel, tomahawk) or abstract (duty, diligence, danger).

Verb: v., a word that expresses action (to win), occurrence (to happen), or mode of being (am, was, are and the other forms of to be).

You climb a long ladder until you see over the roof, or over the clouds. You are writing a book.—Annie Dillard

A sentence isn’t complete without a verb, so it’s important to be able to recognize them. (See this page.)

Helping verbs (also called auxiliary verbs) save you the trouble of changing the main verb to show past, present, and future tense. The twenty-three helping verbs are can, could, would, should, do, does, did, has, have, had, may, might, must, shall, and will plus the eight forms of to be (am, are, be, been, being, is, was, were).

In what other language could your nose run and your feet smell.—Richard Lederer

May your left ear wither and fall into your right pocket.—Ancient curse

Linking verbs, as their name suggests, provide the connection between the subject and the noun or adjective in the predicate.

Opportunities always look bigger going than coming.

Pronoun: pron., a word that takes the place of a noun. Examples are they, it, you, who, and she.

It’s so beautifully arranged on the plate, you know that someone’s fingers have been all over it.—Julia Child

Experience is a wonderful thing. It enables you to recognize a mistake when you see it again.

What the pronoun replaces is called its antecedent. Pronouns are particularly helpful if the antecedent is long or complicated: leftover macaroni and cheese; an inner-city after-school program; a dense, nutty-flavored, unassuming wine.

Adjective: adj., a word or group of words that modifies a noun or pronoun.

purple possum, hysterical hippopotamus, slimy salamander

Adjectives are called modifiers because they limit or restrict the words they are modifying. Not just any possum, but the purple possum.

Bad times have a scientific value; these are occasions a good learner would not miss.—Ralph Waldo Emerson

The adjectives a, an, and the are called articles. When you see an article, you know that a noun is coming.

Adverb: adv., a word or group of words that modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb. Adverbs answer such questions as when (now), where (aloft), how much (very), to what extent (extremely), and in what manner (deftly).

Both adjectives and adverbs are modifiers, but they modify different kinds of words. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

The adverb very modifies the adjective high; the adjective high modifies the noun price.

Conjunction: conj., a word that connects other words, phrases, and clauses.

peaches and cream shaken but not stirred

Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) connect terms of equal grammatical value.

Blessed are they who can laugh at themselves for they shall never cease to be amused.

Correlative conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions that come in pairs: either/or, not only/but also, both/and, whether/or.

I figure you have the same chance of winning the lottery whether you play or not.—Fran Lebowitz

Publishing literary novels is like sailing a small craft; either you catch the wind or you paddle very hard.—Nan Talese

Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses of unequal grammatical value: an independent and a dependent clause. An independent clause can stand by itself as a complete sentence; a dependent clause requires an independent clause to complete its meaning. Subordinating conjunctions include until, since, before, as, if, when, although, because, as long as, and after.

If you look like your passport picture, you probably need the trip.

Always yield to temptation, because it may not pass by your way again.

Preposition: prep., a word that shows the relationship between its object (the noun or pronoun following the preposition) and other words in a sentence.

The most common prepositions show direction (through the looking glass), time (during her term of office), and possession (with my friends). Less obvious examples of prepositions include notwithstanding, concerning, and in spite of. If a word shows the relation of a noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence, it’s a preposition.

A balanced diet is a cookie in each hand.

A prepositional phrase consists of the preposition plus its object and any modifiers of the object.

The only time the world beats a path to my door is when I’m in the bathroom.

Perhaps no other rule of grammar has prompted so many to say so much as the now-outdated rule prohibiting ending a sentence with a preposition.

The grammar has a rule absurd

Which I would call an outworn myth:

A preposition is a word

You mustn’t end a sentence with.

—Berton Braley

It is, indeed, an outworn myth.

Interjection: interj., a word or phrase that conveys strong emotion or surprise; an exclamation.

Heavens, Maude! Help! Never! Oops! Cool!

The elements of a sentence

When the parts of speech are used in a sentence, we give them new names: subject, predicate, object, complement, and modifier.

Subject: Who or what the sentence is about.

If you put Who? or What? in front of a verb, your answer is the subject.

An investment in knowledge always pays the best interest.—Benjamin Franklin

What pays the best interest? An investment in knowledge.

A simple subject does not include any modifiers.

A conscience is what hurts when all your other parts feel good.

A complete subject is the simple subject plus all the words that modify it.

Constant dripping hollows out a stone.—Lucretius

Someone who thinks logically provides a nice contrast to the real world.

The best part of fiction in many novels is the notice that the characters are purely imaginary.—Franklin P. Adams

A compound subject is two or more simple subjects.

Banks and riches are chains of gold, but still chains.—Edmund Ruffin

Directors, coaches, and editors cannot teach you how to get there. But they can put you on the paths that lead there. —Thomas McCormack

Predicate: Everything in the sentence that isn’t the subject.

A predicate explains or describes what the subject is doing.

A simple predicate is synonymous with the verb.

Bills travel through the mail at twice the speed of checks.

A closed mouth gathers no feet.

A complete predicate includes verbs, objects, modifiers, and complements.

Bills travel through the mail at twice the speed of checks.

A closed mouth gathers no feet.

A compound predicate is two or more predicates with the same subject.

A poem begins in delight and ends in wisdom.

—Robert Frost

When we read, we start at the beginning and continue until we reach the end; when we write, we start in the middle and fight our way out.—Vickie Karp

A subject or predicate is said to be understood if it is not actually stated but is clearly implied.

Eat well, stay fit, die anyway. (The understood subject is you.)

Object: (1) A noun that receives or is affected by the action of the verb; (2) the noun following a preposition.

I would certainly go to the barricades for any movement that wants to sweep away the Pentagon, Time magazine, and frozen french-fried potatoes.—Gore Vidal

Barricades is the object of the preposition to, and movement is the object of the preposition for. Pentagon, Time magazine, and frozen french-fried potatoes are objects of the verb sweep.

A direct object answers the question What? or Whom? after the verb.

An indirect object receives the direct object.

Complement: A word or phrase that completes the meaning of the verb.

Make my day.

Clem and Maude are learning to dance the tango.

Genius is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration.—Thomas A. Edison

Too many pieces finish long after the end.—Igor Stravinsky

Modifier: Words that describe or limit other words (see Adjective, Adverb).

apple pie friendly advice printed statement

The most successful politician is he who says what everybody is thinking most often and in the loudest voice.—Theodore Roosevelt

Be careful not to misplace modifiers (See this page) or let them dangle (See this page).

Putting the Pieces Together

Sentences are made up of phrases and clauses. A phrase has no subject or predicate; it can serve as different parts of speech.

Prepositional phrase: under the gun

Gerund phrase: knowing the answer

Noun phrase: a nation of more than five million people

A clause has a subject and predicate. Clauses that express a complete thought are called independent; they can stand alone. Clauses that do not express a complete thought are called dependent; they cannot stand alone.

What makes a sentence a sentence? A subject, a predicate, and a complete thought. Anything short of a complete thought is a fragment.

Fragment: While I was looking at the sunset.

Complete Sentence: While I was looking at the sunset, I drove into a tree.

Used wisely, a fragment is an effective device. It provides emphasis, answers a question, or introduces a change of pace. However, the reader should never feel that something is missing or that you just tacked on an afterthought.

A simple sentence consists of an independent clause.

Justice delayed is justice denied.—William Gladstone

Too much of a good thing can be wonderful.—Mae West

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses; they are joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon.

A little learning is a dangerous thing, but a lot of ignorance is just as bad.—Bob Edwards

I was thirty-two when I started cooking; up until then, I just ate.—Julia Child

A complex sentence consists of a dependent and an independent clause.

There are four more ways to classify sentences.

✵ DECLARATIVE: Makes a statement

Nothing so denies a person liberty as the total absence of money.—John Kenneth Galbraith

✵ INTERROGATIVE: Asks a question

Was it Frank Lloyd Wright who described television as chewing gum for the eyes?

If I counted the pages I’ve torn up, of how many volumes am I the author?—Colette

✵ IMPERATIVE: Gives an order or makes a request

Put all your eggs in one basket—and watch that basket!—Mark Twain

Fill what’s empty. Empty what’s full. Scratch where it itches.—Alice Roosevelt Longworth

✵ EXCLAMATORY: Expresses a strong emotion

Dear God, I pray for patience. And I want it right now!—Oren Arnold

More about verbs

Verbs have different forms. By changing the form of a verb, you provide the following information:

✵ Number

✵ Person

✵ Voice

✵ Tense

✵ Mood

Number shows if a word is singular (only one of something) or plural (more than one).

she waltzes, he waltzes, but they waltz (not they waltzes)

Person tells who is the speaker (first person), who is spoken to (second person), and who is spoken about (third person). Person determines which verb and pronoun to use.

Voice shows whether the subject of the verb is acting (active voice) or being acted upon (passive voice).

Active voice: Celeste is assembling a computer.

Passive voice: The computer is being assembled by Celeste.

Tense tells when an action is happening: in the present (now), in the future, or in the past. As you can see in the table below, sometimes the main verb uses a helping verb to show tense.

Mood can be considered as verbs with an attitude. Is the attitude matter-of-fact, commanding, or hypothetical? These three categories translate into the indicative, imperative, and subjunctive moods, respectively.

We use the indicative mood for statements of fact or questions about facts (The dish ran away with the spoon). We use the imperative mood to give commands (Listen to me) and to present instructions (Place the petri dish in the sterilizer). Most writing is in the indicative or imperative, and using these moods is pretty automatic. But you may need a little guidance with the subjunctive.

The subjunctive mood conveys situations that are hypothetical, doubtful, or even contrary to fact (If it were true …). Like the woman who was surprised to learn she had been speaking prose all her life, you may be unaware that you’ve been using the subjunctive every time you say “I wish I were rich.”(For most of us, that’s a condition contrary to fact.)

The New York Public Library Writer’s Guide has a helpful description of the subjunctive.

The subjunctive mood can seem like speaking English in a slightly different universe, where the basic rules of tense are reversed: Present tense is used for past, past is used for present, and be is used for is, am, and are.

The following examples illustrate where and how to use the subjunctive.

✵ An improbable condition or one that is contrary to fact

If I were you, I wouldn’t jump out of that airplane.

If pregnancy were a book, they would cut the last two chapters.—Nora Ephron

He spoke of his idea as if it were a complete solution.

✵ An indirect command

The postal clerk insisted that the return address be included.

His piano teacher suggested that he practice more often.

✵ Motions and resolutions

I move that the meeting be adjourned.

Resolved, that my birthday be declared a national holiday.

Verb forms (verbals)

When verbs act like nouns, adjectives, or adverbs, they are called infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

Infinitives combine a verb and the word to (to write, to speak). Infinitives can act as adverbs, adjectives, or nouns.

As an adverb: I struggled to fly despite the strong winds.

The infinitive to fly modifies the verb struggled.

As a noun: To fly to Honolulu is my dream.

The infinitive to fly is the subject of the verb is.

As an adjective: For a real thrill, the place to fly is Rio de Janeiro.

The infinitive to fly modifies the noun place.

You create a split infinitive when you put a word between the verb and to, as in to steadily increase or to boldly go. Split infinitives have a long history of being acceptable and only a brief interlude of being frowned upon. Today, language authorities agree: If a split infinitive improves readability, split away.

We expect the advantages to more than compensate for the cost.

Gerunds are verbs that end in -ing and perform the job of nouns.

The main verb in this sentence is takes, not playing. The gerund playing is part of the complete subject: playing bridge. As a subject, it is doing the job of a noun.

Thinking is the hardest work there is, which is probably why so few people do it.—Henry Ford

I don’t think living in cellars and starving is any better for an artist than it is for anybody else.—Katherine Anne Porter

Imagine straddling the cosmos, clinging to the tails of comets, knowing that time does not exist.—Erica Jong

Participles are forms of the verb that either serve as an adjective or show tense.

✵ Participles acting as adjectives end in ing, en, d, ed, or t.

swollen toe burning question missed opportunity

✵ Participles that show tense vary according to the verb.

Regular verbs form the past tense and past participle by adding d or ed to the present tense.

Irregular verbs change other letters or become an entirely different word in the past tense and past participle.

Participles need an auxiliary or helping verb to show tense.

A participial phrase combines a participle and its modifiers.

More About Pronouns

The five kinds of pronouns are personal, relative, indefinite, demonstrative, and interrogative. Pronouns are classified by how they are used in a sentence.

Personal pronouns replace nouns.

Singular: I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it

Plural: we, us, you, they, them

Possessive: my, mine, her, hers, his, our, ours, your, yours, their, theirs

Three elements determine which pronoun to use: case, person, and number.

Case: The cases of personal pronouns are nominative, objective, and possessive.

When a pronoun is the subject of a sentence, use the nominative case.

I write books. (Not Me write books.)

When a pronoun is the direct or indirect object, use the objective case.

Give me the book.

When a personal pronoun shows possession, use the possessive case. Possessive pronouns tell who or what something belongs to.

The leather-bound book is mine.

Possessive pronouns can be in front of a noun (my toothache, his big toe) or stand by themselves (This cell phone is yours.)

Person: Person shows who is the speaker, who is spoken to, and who is spoken about. The speaker is the first person (I, we). The person spoken to is the second person (you). The person or thing spoken about is the third person (he, she, it, they).

Number: When the pronoun replaces one person or thing, use a singular pronoun (I, me, you, she, he, it). When the pronoun replaces more than one person or thing, use a plural pronoun (we, you, they, them).

NOTE: The pronoun you is both singular and plural.

Reflexive and intensive pronouns end in -self or -selves (myself, themselves, yourself). Reflexive pronouns refer back to someone or something already mentioned.

If I’d known I was going to live so long, I’d have taken better care of myself.—Leon Eldred

Intensive pronouns show emphasis.

I will drive there myself!

Don’t substitute a reflexive pronoun for a personal pronoun.

Wrong: Give the money to Riley and myself.

Right: Give the money to Riley and me.

Relative pronouns connect words. The commonly used relative pronouns are who, whom, which, that, whoever, whomever, whose, and what.

Rock journalism is people who can’t write interviewing people who can’t talk for people who can’t read.—Frank Zappa

The most common error with relative pronouns is using who when it should be whom and vice versa. See this page.

Demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these, and those. They point to people or things without actually naming them.

I’ll take six of those.

I wish I could play the piano like that!

Marisela didn’t buy any property; this is no way to win Monopoly.

Cross out every sentence until you come to one you cannot do without. That is your beginning.—Gary Provost

When this, that, these, and those precede a noun, they are adjectives, not pronouns: that book, those pickles.

Indefinite pronouns, as their name suggests, are rather vague. Examples are any, all, several, few, some, each, every, and compounds with -body, -thing, and -one (such as no one, everyone, somebody, something, nobody, nothing).

Whatever you have, spend less.—Samuel Johnson

Those who write clearly have readers; those who write obscurely have commentators.—Albert Camus

Interrogative pronouns ask questions: who, whom, which, what, and whose.

Politics is the science of who gets what, when, and why.—Sidney Hellman

Isn’t it nice that the people who prefer Los Angeles to San Francisco live there?—Herb Caen

Now let’s apply the terms discussed here to the art of good writing.