Write Right - Jan Venolia 2001

Words
The craft of writing

Chapter 5: Words

The Prerequisite for Good Writing: A Good Dictionary

Compound Words

Trendy Words and Clichés

Jargon

Unintended Meanings and Other Foolishness

Tricky Words

Chapter 6: Style

Think Before You Write

Omit Unnecessary Words

Use Simple Words

Write with Strong Verbs and in the Active Voice

Choose the Right “Person” for Your Audience

Use a Positive Form

Be Specific and Concrete

Vary Your Sentences

Use Intensifiers with Care

Edit for Bias

Become Your Reader

5. Words

The English language is rich in strong and and supple words. Take the time to root around and find the ones you want.

—William Zinsser

This chapter is about “rooting around,” about finding the words you want. Ours is a living language. Anthony Hughes in The Online English Grammar urges us to “think of it as a writhing, many-headed, sensual, changing, and wonderful creature.”

Some use that vitality to justify accepting all change. If it’s what people are doing, they say, it must be right. Paul Lovinger expresses a more reasonable view in The Penguin Dictionary of American English Usage and Style:

New words continually appear. Those that fill needs are generally desirable. What ought to be questioned or resisted are the watering down of distinctive words that we already have, the creation of ambiguity and fuzziness, the breakdown of grace and grammar, and irrational verbal fads.

Admittedly, some changes are useful. New words have been created (biodiversity, morph, fax, e-mail) and old words given new meanings (Web site, hacker, spin). Rules are reevaluated, and those that serve no purpose disappear. The prohibitions against ending a sentence with a preposition or starting one with a conjunction are good examples.

But when changes “water down” the richness of our language, I resist them. If nauseous becomes synonymous with nauseated, I begin to feel a little green around the gills. When the noun loan crowds out the verb lend, we all go into debt. If I’ve been bitten by a black widow, I need an antidote, not someone telling me an amusing story (anecdote).

As television gobbles up increasing chunks of the day, the auditory act of hearing replaces the visual act of reading. Along the way, nuances between words disappear, and our writing becomes peppered with malapropisms:

If we allow our language to be whittled down, we lose cultural information; this, in turn, reduces our ability to understand the world and our place in it. Let’s use words as our vote for clarity, for felicity, for celebration.

The prerequisite for good writing: A good dictionary

A good dictionary is essential in searching for the right word. Among other things, you’ll find an exploration of the shades of meaning that will guide your choice.

Take the words doubtless and no doubt, which my dictionary describes as follows:

… relatively weak in expressing certainty, since they can also indicate mere presumption or probability: “He will doubtless go”; or concession: “You are no doubt right in some details.” In contrast, undoubtedly and without doubt express only certainty and conviction.

The dictionary goes on to say that doubt and doubtful are often followed by clauses beginning with that, whether, or if, and it recommends that I look up doubtful, dubious, and questionable for additional shades of meaning. Have I left any doubts that you’ll find a dictionary invaluable?

What is a good dictionary? If you’re shopping for one, I recommend looking up a few words. If the candidate dictionary lists heighth without advising you that this is nonstandard usage or if it lists irregardless without pointing out the redundancy and suggesting that you use regardless, keep looking.

Here are a few of the types of information included in a dictionary:

✵ Usage, including levels of formality (formal, standard, slang)

✵ Etymology (word roots)

✵ Abbreviations

✵ Pronunciation

✵ Inflected forms (e.g., well, better, best)

✵ Parts of speech

✵ Synonyms

A thesaurus, with its everything-under-the-sun approach, expands your choice of alternative wording still further. When Dr. Roget published his first thesaurus in 1852, he said it was for “those who are … struggling with the difficulties of composition.” Roget and those who followed have provided us strugglers with an abundance of words to choose from.

As an example, let’s walk through the treatment of the word walk. It is one of the forty-three categories of entries under “Travel” in my thesaurus. A few of the alternatives included are the highbrow ambulate, the descriptive stride, the casual hoof it, and the quaint ride shank’s mare. What a treasure trove of choices!

A word processor’s dictionary and thesaurus are no substitute for the real thing. When I was considering the wording of the previous paragraph, I looked up trove in my word processor’s thesaurus. The only alternative it suggested was trowel!

A dictionary is helpful only if you use it. Look up words often, and while you’re there, take advantage of the wealth of information at your fingertips.

Develop a respect for words and a curiosity about their shades of meaning that is almost obsessive.—William Zinsser

A Note About British and American Usage

The differences between British English and American English are beyond the scope of this book. Each has a distinct vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, and usage.

Nonetheless, our common heritage in language is so extensive that the rules and conventions of American English presented here cover most situations. If you need more information about the differences between British and American English, look at some of the books listed in the bibliography or search the Internet (my search for “British language usage” produced more than 30,000 hits!).

The Americans are identical to the British in all respects except, of course, language.

—Oscar Wilde

Compound words

The word compound means “consisting of two or more elements.” Compound words unite two or more words to convey a single idea. Whether to write compounds as two words (real estate), hyphenated (off-the-record), or one word (motherboard) is a vexed question. Fixed rules are hard to come by.

For example, you can’t make a single, all-purpose rule about compounds beginning with the word cross since they fall in all three categories: crossfire, cross-country, and cross hair. Let your choice be guided by whether hyphenating a compound helps the reader.

Here are a few suggestions, from the firm to the flexible, for dealing with the compound predicament.

Two-Word Compounds

Some two-word compound nouns go together so naturally that we don’t need to add hyphens or make them one word for the sake of clarity. Even when such compounds are modifiers, no hyphens are needed.

One-Word Compounds

Similarly, some compounds are so well established as one word that we hardly realize they are compounds.

Others are still evolving toward the one-word form. Multitasking has made the transition, while Web site is still in the process (Web site, web site, and website are all currently acceptable). Once you’ve made a decision, stick with it. If you begin with start-up companies, don’t switch to startup companies mid-document.

Some one-word compounds are formed from a verb and a preposition.

These are handy as nouns (backup, runoff) and as modifiers (a backup procedure, runoff elections). But you run into trouble if you use such compounds as verbs.

Wrong: Did you backup your file?

Right: Did you back up your file?

By retaining a two-word, unhyphenated verb form such as back up, run off, and set up, you will avoid a monstrosity like I back-upped my files.

Hyphenated Compounds

By hyphenating compound modifiers that precede the noun, you help readers see how the words are connected.

pale-green soup

teacher-training program

part-time employee

See this page for more about hyphenated compounds.

Plural Compound Words

Form plurals of compound words with the principal word.

Medium-size or Medium-sized Business?

The language submits to no rules when it comes to this kind of decision. Certain-ed forms are well established.

But is it bite-size pieces or bite-sized pieces, horn-rim glasses or horn-rimmed glasses, teenage boy or teenaged boy? In The Careful Writer, Bernstein concludes that it’s a matter of “idiom and sound.” In other words, use the form that sounds right to you.

You can scrutinize whole categories of words and sometimes imagine you have hit upon a principle, but as soon as you do, the next word you can think of constitutes an exception.—Theodore Bernstein

Trendy Words and Clichés

Ready-made phrases are the prefabricated strips of words … that come crowding in when you do not want to take the trouble to think through what you are saying.

—George Orwell

The saturation provided by television, radio, and the various print media can turn words into instant clichés. Paradigm, viable options, closure, epiphany, no problem, déjà vu, bottom line, 24/7, basically, radar screen, behind the curve, killer app, and rocket scientist have all joined the catalog of overworked words. A good news/bad news format may have been fresh once, but it has lost its edge.

The best way to stifle word fads is to ignore them. Allow the overworked expression to recuperate.

My inclination is to question deviant forms, challenge innovations to prove themselves, and resist senseless fads.—Paul Lovinger

As for clichés, that’s where the rubber hits the road. If you’re trying to hit the nail on the head and not mince words, it goes without saying that clichés won’t do the trick. They seldom throw any light on the subject and probably should never see the light of day. Are we all on the same page?

Jargon

Anyone who uses the words “parameter” and “interface” should never be invited to a dinner party.—Dick Cavett

Jargon can be useful shorthand; specialized vocabularies allow members of a professional group to communicate succinctly with each other. But jargon has earned its bad reputation because it is often used simply to impress, or worse yet, to provide a smokescreen for burying truth rather than revealing it. Examples: “revenue enhancement” for taxes and “proactive resource-allocation restructuring” for closing the factory and moving to Mexico.

Everyday jargon includes the following elements: interchangeable parts of speech and noun chains.

Interchangeable Parts of Speech

The English language is remarkably adaptable. It allows us to shuffle parts of speech around, turning nouns into adjectives (milk carton), verbs into nouns (on the mend), nouns into verbs (to face), and adjectives into nouns (seeing red). Indeed, such flexibility is one of the strengths of our language. But avoid such “verbs” as to guest and to gift.

Poor: This model obsoletes its predecessor.

Better: This model makes its predecessors obsolete.

Occasionally pressing nouns into service as verbs (or vice versa) creates a breezy style. In striving for a certain effect, I might write “Let’s front-page that story.” I would draw the line, however, at “I plan to Op-Ed my views in the Sunday paper” or “The investigator accessed the information in the public library.” And I would quickly put aside a handbook on writing if I found a chapter titled “How to Style Written English.”

Noun Chains

Nouns used as adjectives often slip out of a writer’s control, producing impenetrable chains. To break these into manageable chunks, look for the noun at the end of the chain. Move it forward and turn the other chunks into short prepositional phrases.

Rewrite: potassium permanganate-impregnated activated alumina medium as: a medium of activated alumina that has been impregnated with potassium permanganate

Rewrite: urban public hospital out-patient clinics as: out-patient clinics sponsored by urban public hospitals Revisions of noun chains are often longer than the original phrase. That’s a price we pay for clarity. In a contest between brevity and clarity, clarity should always win.

Unintended meanings and other foolishness

Pause to think about what you’ve written. In the heat of creation, you may fail to notice something as ridiculous as “the world’s largest van for its size.” Or how about a “precise estimate”? Perhaps you likened a frenzy of activity to the “eye of the storm,” when in reality calm is what characterizes the eye of a storm. If you describe a point of new beginning as “ground zero,” you are actually referring to the point of maximum impact (hence, maximum destruction), not to fresh ground.

The slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts.

—George Orwell

Step back and take a fresh look to save yourself embarrassment. Those who wrote the following sentences (all of which appeared in print) failed to do that.

No job losses are planned.

Submit a list of all employees broken down by sex.

No detail is too small to overlook.

We feel pornography is an issue that demands a second look.

Dr. Ruth will talk about sex with Larry King.

(Sign in cemetery) Persons are prohibited from picking flowers from any but their own graves.

Some English words (called homographs) have identical spellings but different pronunciations and meanings. Take the word subject. When the word is a noun, the accent is on the first syllable (súbject) and it means a topic or an individual; when it’s a verb, the second syllable is accented (subjéct) and it means to cause to undergo.

We had to subject the subject to a series of tests.

Be aware when using a homograph that readers may not know how to interpret a word unless the context makes it clear.

Confusing: The bandage was wound around the wound.

Better: The bandage was tightly wound around the wound.

Better yet: The wound was tightly bandaged.

Tricky words

English is riddled not only with homographs, but also with homonyms and homophones. Homonyms are words that are both spelled and pronounced alike: bear the animal and bear the verb. Homophones are words that have different spellings but the same pronunciation: write and right. Some words have similar sounds (home/hone), and others call for a specific usage (myriad details, not a myriad of details). No wonder we have trouble!

The following words seem to invite error. Skim through the list to see if it includes words you use and if you’re using them correctly. Refer to the list as needed to help you find just the right word and its correct use.

The status of some entries listed below is changing from unacceptable to widely accepted in formal writing. During the transition, careful writers will continue to observe the traditional usage.

Advice, Advise: The noun advice means a suggestion or opinion concerning a course of action. The verb advise means to give advice; using advise as a synonym for inform smacks of business jargon. Someone who dispenses advice is either an adviser or an advisor; both spellings are acceptable, but adviser seems to have the edge.

Affect, Effect: Affect is most often used as a verb and effect as a noun. The verb affect means to influence or to have an effect on.

The attorney hopes to affect the jury’s decision.

A less common meaning of affect as a verb is to pretend in order to make a desired impression.

The prosecutor affected a look of amazement when the defendant couldn’t recall his whereabouts.

The noun effect means result or consequence.

The effect of the program change was to reduce overtime.

The verb effect means to bring about.

Management hopes to effect a similar change in employee benefits.

Aggravate: A verb meaning to make worse. A trouble or condition is aggravated, not a person.

The condition of the road was aggravated by the flooding creek. Esmeralda was provoked (or annoyed or irritated) when she couldn’t reach her mailbox to see if she had won the sweepstakes.

All- (all right, almost, already, altogether): Three of these have both one- and two-word forms, each with its own spelling and meaning. One, all right, is correct only in the two-word form; alright is a misspelling of all right.

The literal meaning of all right is entirely right, and its less formal meanings are adequate, permissible, and satisfactory. Almost means not quite. Already means by this (or a specified) time. Altogether means entirely or on the whole.

The two-word forms of these words have different meanings, which you can deduce from the following examples. Failure to note the differences could be embarrassing, as the first example illustrates.

The cookies and pies are almost baked; you are all most welcome to join us for dinner.

By the time we were all ready, the plane was already taxiing to the runway.

They were not altogether happy at being all together again.

Allude, Elude, Refer: To allude to something is to mention it indirectly, without identifying it specifically. To refer is to indicate directly.

The speaker alluded to the hazards of smoking when he referred to the chart showing the incidence of lung cancer.

Elude means to slip away from or avoid.

The suspect managed to elude the police.

Alternate, Alternative: The strict meaning of alternate as an adjective refers to every other one, or succeeding by turns: alternate days means every other day. It is now more loosely used to mean offering a substitute (an alternate route). As a noun, alternate means a substitute (an alternate at the convention). Alternative as a noun means a choice (an alternative to war). As an adjective, alternative has strayed from its strict meaning of one of two choices to mean simply providing a choice (an alternative plan).

Ante-, Anti-: Ante means coming before or in front of.

antebellum = before the war

antediluvian = before the floods

Anti means against.

Antifreeze anti-establishment

Just to confuse matters, anti is also a variant of ante in such words as antipasto, where it means “before the first course.”

His fondness for latte and antipasto antedates their widespread popularity.

Anticipate: A verb meaning to take action beforehand. Described by Paul Lovinger as a “wounded word,” anticipate should be used only in this sense, not as a synonym for expect.

The chess master anticipated his opponent’s every move.

Anxious, Eager: Use anxious where there is a sense of anxiety, eager where there is pleasant expectation.

The grandmother awaited the birth of her first grandchild anxiously; she was eager to hold the baby in her arms.

Apt, Liable, Likely, Prone: Apt implies a natural tendency (I am apt to forget their names). Liable suggests the possibility or probability of risk (The theme of the ad campaign is liable to be misunderstood). Likely conveys simple probability (The forecast says rain is likely). Prone means tending (People who are accident-prone have a tendency to fall often or to cut themselves with sharp knives.)

A While, Awhile: While means a period of time; awhile means for a period of time. Thus, to write “I will be gone for awhile” is to double up on the word for. Write “I will be gone for a while” or “I will be gone awhile.”

Bad, Badly: To help you decide which of these two words to use, substitute another adjective or adverb for bad or badly in the sentence. For example, in the sentence “I feel bad (or badly) about the results,” substitute the adjective unhappy and the adverb unhappily.

I feel unhappy/unhappily about the results.

Clearly, you wouldn’t write “I feel unhappily”; therefore, choose the adjective and write “I feel bad.”

Beside, Besides: When you mean “next to,” use beside; when you mean “in addition to” or “except for,” use besides.

Besides the defense attorney, no one was willing to sit beside the prisoner.

Better/Best; Worse/Worst: When you’re comparing the merits of two things or people, use better (or worse); when comparing three or more, use best (or worst).

Between, Among: An ill-founded rule calls for using between with two items and among with more than two. Doggedly following this rule can lead you into such an absurdity as She traveled among Santa Fe, Taos, and Albuquerque. A better rule is to use between when individual relationships are emphasized and the number is unspecified (he appeared between acts; cooperation between neighboring countries), and when repetition is implied (sobbing between breaths). Use among with unspecified numbers if individual relationships are not emphasized (discontent among the employees). You are probably on safe ground using whichever word sounds right. The following examples illustrate choices that sound right.

The anthropologist traveled among the Navajo and Hopi.

She traveled between Rome, Paris, and Berlin.

Watch out for illogical constructions that include the word each or every: He was sobbing between each breath.

Bi-, Semi-: If you want to avoid confusion when referring to a period of time, consider abandoning the use of the prefixes bi and semi and say every two weeks, every two months, twice a year—or whatever interval you are describing.

Billion: Means a thousand million (1,000,000,000) in the United States but a million million (1,000,000,000,000) in the United Kingdom. Where appropriate for your audience, specify which meaning you’re using.

three billion (U.S.)

1.5 billion (U.K.)

Can, May: The rule that distinguishes between can (the ability or power to do something) and may (permission to do it) is weakening. The Harper Dictionary of Contemporary Usage considers this “rather a pity, for the distinction is a nice one—and not really very hard to remember.” Formal usage still requires the use of may for permission, despite the prevalence of can for may in speech.

Capital, Capitol: Capital refers to wealth, the city that is the seat of government, or an uppercase letter. Capitol is the building in which state or federal officials congregate. The Capitol, when referring to the home of the U.S. Congress, is always capitalized.

People who work in the Capitol disburse a great deal of the taxpayers’ capital.

Only one building in the U.S. is the Capitol, and only one building in each state is its capitol; all others are capital.

Complement, Compliment: Complement is both a verb and a noun, meaning to complete a whole or satisfy a need. Compliment also functions as both verb and noun, meaning praise.

Nowadays we are all of us so hard up that the only pleasant things to pay are compliments.—Oscar Wilde

Comprise: Means to include or be made up of; therefore, comprised of is redundant. It is frequently confused with compose or incorrectly used as a synonym for constitute. The traditional dictum is that the whole comprises the parts; the parts constitute the whole. If comprise sounds stilted, substitute is composed of.

Wrong: High-tech companies comprise only 10 percent of GNP.

Right: High-tech companies constitute only 10 percent of GNP.

Right: The company comprises three divisions.

If you can substitute include for comprise, you are using comprise correctly.

Contact: This word seems to have made the complete transition to respectability as a verb, but I might still look for a more descriptive alternative.

Continual, Continuous: Continual means over and over again; continuous means uninterrupted or unbroken. Dictionaries now list these words as synonymous, but maintaining the distinction between them helps preserve the richness of our vocabulary.

Since he coughed continually, the doctor kept him under continuous observation.

A man’s memory may almost become the art of continually varying and misrepresenting his past, according to his interests in the present.—George Santayana

Convince, Persuade: Though the meaning of these words is similar (to bring to belief), each has a preferred usage. You persuade someone to do something, but you convince someone about something. In other words, convince … of, but persuade … to/that/as to/about.

He convinced me of his sincerity.

He persuaded me that she was sincere.

She persuaded me to attend the meeting.

Cope: Careful usage limits cope to coping with something, not just coping.

Council, Counsel, Consul: Council, always a noun, refers to an assemblage of persons or a committee. Counsel has both verb and noun forms, meaning to advise, the advice itself, or an attorney.

Counsel for the defense counseled her client not to speak to the council members; the council resented her counsel.

Consul is a person in the foreign service who represents the business interests of the country.

Cum: A recently popular way to indicate a coupling, as in bookstore-cum-coffeeshop. As with many word fads, this one is easily overdone.

Data: A plural Latin word meaning information, especially in numerical form. Acceptance of data as a singular is widespread, and it has all but eliminated use of the Latin singular datum. However, in scientific and formal writing, the plural form is still preferred.

Data are …(not Data is …)

Decimate, Annihilate: The literal meaning of decimate is to destroy one-tenth of, though it is sometimes loosely used to mean to destroy a large part of. Annihilate means to destroy completely (thus, annihilate completely is redundant). The words decimate and annihilate are not interchangeable.

Different from, Different than: Different from is preferred in most cases, especially if it is followed by a single noun, pronoun, or short phrase.

His writing style is different from mine.

Different than is acceptable if it avoids wordiness or is followed by a clause.

Wordy: Writing style today is different from what it was a century ago.

Better: Writing style today is different than a century ago.

Dilemma, Predicament, Hobson’s Choice: Reserve the use of dilemma for a choice between two equal alternatives; to refer to a difficult situation, use such words as predicament, plight, or problem. Hobson’s choice is the apparent freedom of choice when there is no real alternative; it is named for Thomas Hobson, a seventeenth-century liveryman who gave customers the choice of the horse next to the stable door or no horse at all.

Disburse, Disperse: Disburse means to pay out, as from a fund; disperse means to scatter.

He disbursed the proceeds of the estate after he had dispersed the ashes.

Discreet, Discrete: Discreet describes behavior that is prudent or respectful of propriety. Discrete frequently has a scientific connotation and means separate, distinct, or individual.

She made discreet inquiries into his whereabouts.

The smooth surface of water seems to contradict the discrete nature of its molecules.

Disinterested, Uninterested: Cautious writers still observe the distinction between these two words. Disinterested means objective or impartial, not influenced by personal advantage. Uninterested means indifferent or lacking interest in an outcome.

A disinterested scientist is not uninterested in the outcome of her experiments.

Due to, Because of: Though used interchangeably in informal writing, careful writers will use because of to indicate a cause-and-effect relationship and reserve due to for use after forms of the verb to be.

The driver lost control of the car because of faulty brakes.

The collision was due to faulty brakes.

Ecology: The study of the relationship between organisms and their environment. Often misused as a synonym for environment, which means surroundings.

Emigrate, Immigrate: To emigrate is to leave one’s country permanently; thus one emigrates from a country. To immigrate is to move to a new country permanently; thus one immigrates to a country.

Eminent, Imminent, Emanate: Eminent means well known or distinguished; imminent means about to happen; emanate means to originate or issue forth.

The arrival of the eminent statesman was imminent.

A light emanated from the shuttered windows.

Enthused: A “back formation” from the word enthusiasm (as donate was derived from donation), enthused is not yet acceptable in formal writing. Use enthusiastic.

Farther, Further:

Traditional American usage calls for farther when actual physical distance is involved (We walked farther than we had intended). Use further in the sense of more or additional (further deliberation, going further into debt) and in the figurative sense of distance (We are moving further from the truth).

Fewer, Less: Fewer is used with individual items that can be counted (fewer potatoes); less is used for quantity or bulk, when the item is regarded as a single entity (less oatmeal).

The fewer mistakes you make, the less embarrassment you will feel.

A diet that has less fat will also have fewer calories.

Less takes a singular verb and fewer a plural one.

Less fat is needed if fewer calories are to be consumed.

Finalize: Resistance to this word because of its bureaucratic flavor appears to be waning, perhaps because substitutes are wordy (to put in final form) or fail to convey the same meaning (conclude, complete). Nonetheless,-ize words such as finalize and prioritize create an inelegant patina that you might want to avoid in formal writing.

Flammable, Inflammable: Both mean capable of burning. Because of the danger that inflammable will be mistaken for not flammable, use flammable to mean combustible and nonflammable for its antonym.

Flaunt, Flout: A common error is to use flaunt, which means to show off, for flout, which means to show contempt. Although sometimes widespread errors evolve into acceptability, confusing these two words is simply an error.

Even in an academic setting, he flaunted his superior knowledge.

They tried to flout U.S. tax laws by establishing offshore accounts.

Foreword, Forward: Mixing up these two words is a serious blunder, especially in large print at the front of a book. Foreword is a preface or introductory note. It deals with words and is spelled with an o. Forward is the opposite of backward and means at or near the front, or moving in the direction of the front. There is no such word as foreward.

Fulsome: Modern usage limits the meaning of fulsome to offensively excessive or insincere; disgusting. This word is often used incorrectly to mean abundant or lavish. Don’t write fulsome praise unless you wish to be uncomplimentary.

Gender, Sex: Gender is a grammatical term that classifies words as feminine, masculine, or neuter. In recent years, it has been increasingly used as a euphemism for sex when identifying whether a person or animal is male or female. When filling out forms nowadays, you may be asked for age, income, and gender. As Paul Lovinger says, “It is not obvious why sex, in such an innocent sense, needs a euphemism.” But for now, it seems gender will be used to indicate sex and sex to indicate the sexual act or sexual activity.

Get, Got: Although get and got can claim a long history of use in the English language, careful writers will avoid their casual overtones by substituting words such as have or receive whenever possible.

I’ve got the answer. (I have the answer.)

We’ve got to comply. (We have to comply or We must comply.)

In some cases, got remains a suitable choice.

They got what they deserve.

Heighth: A non-word. The correct word is height.

Home, Hone: The verb hone, meaning to sharpen, is sometimes incorrectly substituted for home in the expression home in, meaning to be guided to a target.

Wrong: He honed in on the target.

Right: He honed his skills in order to earn a promotion.

Right: The airplane homed in on the runway.

Homogeneous, Homogenous: Homogeneous means uniform in structure or composition throughout. Homogenous is correctly used in biology to indicate a correspondence between organs or parts that are related by common descent. However, it appears more often as a misspelling or mispronunciation of homogeneous.

Hopefully: This adverb means full of hope (He uttered his prayer hopefully and fervently). The more common usage today is in place of “I hope” (Hopefully, I will receive a raise). A great deal of ink has been spent trying to forestall acceptance of hopefully in the latter sense. But just as happily, presumably, and luckily have been accepted as standard usage, hopefully may someday cease to grate on the nerves of traditionalists. For now, a strong case can be made for avoiding the word simply because it is overworked. I hope I make myself clear!

I, Me, Myself: I is the subjective case and thus should be used when it is the subject of a sentence (the who or what the rest of the sentence is about).

My brother and I went to the ball game.

Me is the objective case and should be used when it is the object of the action or thought conveyed by the verb of the sentence, or when it is the object of a preposition.

Between you and me, I hate Sunday afternoon football.

Ebenezer invited Elijah and me to the opera.

In a sentence such as the last, if you remove “Elijah and,” it is obvious that me is the correct pronoun.

Myself is correctly used for emphasis (I, myself, will see to it) or as a reflexive (I hurt myself falling from the roof). Do not use myself as a substitute for I or me.

Wrong: The money was given to my partner and myself.

Right: The money was given to my partner and me.

Wrong: My partner and myself are seeking underwriting for a business venture.

Right: My partner and I are seeking underwriting for a business venture.

Impact: A noun meaning violent contact, as of two objects striking each other. Do not use it as a substitute for effect, influence, or result. As a verb, it’s a poor substitute for affect.

Imply, Infer: To imply is to suggest directly or insinuate; to infer is to draw a conclusion or deduce.

I infer from your remark that no threat was implied.

Insure, Ensure, Assure: All three words mean to make secure or certain.

Victory is assured. (or ensured or insured)

Assure has the meaning of setting someone’s mind at rest. Both ensure and insure mean to make secure from harm. Only insure should be used regarding guaranteeing of life or property against risk.

Irregardless: A redundancy. Use regardless.

It’s, Its: It’s is the contraction of it is or it has. Its is a possessive pronoun. (See this page.)

Lay, Lie: Lay is a transitive verb (i.e., it takes an object); it means to place or put down. The past tense and past participle form is laid.

Lay the package on the table. (package is the object of the verb lay)

Lie is an intransitive verb (i.e., it does not take an object); it means to recline. The past tense of lie is lay; the past participle is lain.

Lie on your exercise mat.

He lay on the mat for half an hour.

He had lain on the mat for half an hour when I arrived.

To help you decide whether to use lay or lie, substitute the word place. If place sounds right, use lay.

Lend, Loan: Call me old-fashioned, but I still prefer to distinguish between the verb lend and the noun loan. Doesn’t “I will lend you my pen” seem more elegant than “I will loan you my pen”? Despite its widespread acceptance as a verb, I will continue to use loan only as a noun (I received a $1,000 loan).

Like, As: Like is correct when used as a preposition (in other words, when it’s followed by a noun or pronoun).

She writes like Hemingway.

My Luv is like a red, red rose.—Robert Burns

Like is also acceptable when it introduces a clause from which the verb has been omitted.

He took to politics like a fish to water.

In formal writing, substitute as or as if for like when it’s used as a conjunction.

Residents of the model village live as the villagers did two hundred years ago.

The shareholder spoke as if he had privileged information.

In journalism and informal writing, like is often used as a conjunction.

Sales aren’t growing like they were a decade ago.

Literally: Although a literal translation is word for word and exact, literally has strayed into being used for emphasis in ways that are anything but literal. Your credibility is jeopardized if you write “We were literally climbing the walls.” On the other hand, you might write “He literally got away with murder” and mean it if he killed someone and got away with it. Use literally with care.

Loose, Lose: Loose is an adjective meaning unrestrained or not fastened. Lose is a verb that is the antonym of win and find.

Majority, Plurality: A majority is at least half of the votes cast plus one; a plurality is the highest number of votes when there are three or more candidates.

Meantime, Meanwhile: Meantime is a noun that refers to an interval between events.

We will meet at 3:00 this afternoon. In the meantime, prepare your responses to the board’s questions.

Meanwhile is an adverb meaning during the intervening time.

Meanwhile, back at the ranch …

You can interchange in the meantime and meanwhile, but do not write “in the meanwhile.”

Media: A newspaper is a medium of mass communication. So are radio, television, and magazines. As a group, it is correct to refer to them as “the media,” but be sure to use a plural verb: media are. If fortune tellers or a substance used in a lab to culture cells is the kind of medium being discussed, mediums is the correct plural.

Myriad: An adjective meaning a large number. Don’t write “a myriad of.”

Myself: See the entry for I, Me, Myself, this page.

Nano-: A prefix meaning billionth or one part in one billion (U.S.). Nano- is a scientific term that has been seized upon by nonscientists and often used (incorrectly) to indicate a very small amount (I didn’t consider the alternative for a nanosecond). Let’s leave nano- to the scientists.

Nauseated, Nauseous: According to Theodore Bernstein, a person who feels sick is no more nauseous than a person who has been poisoned is poisonous. Though the distinction between the verb nauseate and the adjective nauseous has all but disappeared in speech, you should observe the difference in writing. Something that makes you feel sick is nauseous (nauseous fumes); what you feel is nauseated (The fumes nauseated me).

People, Persons: In general, use people for larger groups, persons for an exact or small number.

Eight persons are being held as hostages.

The trouble with people is not that they don’t know but that they know so much that ain’t so.—Josh Billings

If persons sounds affected, try using a more specific noun, such as commuters, residents, or visitors.

Pore, Pour: The verb pore means reading or scrutinizing intently, and pour means to let flow. The noun pore is a minute surface opening, as in the skin of an animal.

While she was poring over the document, she poured herself a glass of wine.

Predominant, Predominate: Predominant is an adjective meaning most common or having the greatest influence or force. Predominate is a verb meaning to prevail or to have the greatest influence.

The predominant theme of the parade was patriotism.

The patriotic theme predominated over all others.

Though the adverb predominantly is correct, there is no such word as predominately.

Principal, Principle: Principal functions as both noun and adjective. The noun refers to the head of a school or firm, or to capital that earns interest; the adjective means chief or main. Principle is a noun meaning rule or standard.

The principal’s principal principle was “Be Prepared for Anything.”

Rebut, Refute: The verb rebut means to argue against; refute to prove incorrect.

Respectfully, Respectively: Respectfully means full of respect (I respectfully disagree). It may be used in the formal closing of a letter (Respectfully yours). Respectively means individually in the order given (Suzanne Johnson and William Campbell were elected president and vice-president, respectively). Do not sign a letter “Respectively yours.”

Shall, Will: This is one instance where the fading of an old grammatical distinction is welcome. Don’t worry about rules regarding shall and will, or should and would. Just let your ear be your guide.

Stanch, Staunch: Stanch means to stop the flow; staunch is steadfast, true.

You may need a staunch friend to stanch a bloody wound.

Stationary, Stationery: Stationary means fixed in position, not moving. Stationery is writing paper and envelopes.

A good mnemonic is that stationery is what you need to write letters.

Tenant, Tenet: Although both words derive from Latin tenere (meaning “to hold”) and to the untrained ear may sound similar, the meanings do not overlap. A tenant is one who temporarily holds or occupies property (land, buildings). A tenet is an opinion or principle held by a person or organization.

The tenants’ association drew up a list of tenets for their organization.

That: As an adverb, that means to such an extent or degree. That is correctly used if what it refers to is clear (I won’t buy a car that old). A statement such as “I’m not that hungry” is colloquial unless it follows something like “John ate twelve pancakes.”

That, Which: Generally, use that to introduce restrictive, or defining, clauses; use which to introduce nonrestrictive clauses. (See this page.)

Restrictive: The pencil that needs sharpening is on my desk.

Nonrestrictive: The pencil, which needs sharpening, is on my desk.

In the restrictive sentence, the pencil is one of several and thus must be further identified; in the nonrestrictive sentence, there is only one pencil, and by the way, it needs sharpening. Note that commas are omitted with restrictive phrases.

Restrictive: I try to leave out the parts that people skip.—Elmore Leonard

Nonrestrictive: Dr. Seuss is remembered for the murder of Dick and Jane, which was a mercy killing of the highest order.—Anna Quindlen

In the following example, which might refer to the word taxes or to the entire preceding phrase. Rewrite to avoid such ambiguity.

Unclear: Any attempts to increase taxes, which would harm the recovery …

Clear: Since any attempts to increase taxes would harm the recovery.

Whenever you write which, try substituting that. If it doesn’t alter the meaning, that is probably the better word to use.

That, Who, Whose: Although in earlier versions of Write Right! I observed that the rules governing the choice between that and who had been relaxed, I now think we’ve gone overboard. That threatens to obliterate who. Using who to refer to persons makes them seem more human, and we need all the help we can get in that direction these days. Use that to refer to things.

Poor: The students that met me in the classroom …

Better: The students who met me in the classroom …

Use whose to refer either to persons or things.

The crowd, whose patience had worn thin.

The building, whose architect won a national award.

There’s: The contagion of using the contracted form of there is with a plural word has spread from spoken to written language. It’s an error whether in speech or writing.

Wrong: There’s three reasons …

Right: There are three reasons …

Was, Were: Use were when expressing a wish or a condition contrary to fact and when following the words as if and as though. (See this page.)

The silence made it seem as if he were speaking to an empty room.

If it were not for the presents, an elopement would be preferable.—George Ade

Use was when expressing a past condition that is not contrary to fact.

If Hortense was guilty, she did not show it.

Whatever, Wherever, Whoever, Whenever: Should they be one word or two? If it’s a statement, one word; if it’s a question, two.

He does whatever he wants.

What ever made you say that?

Who, Whom:

The irony of the who/whom problem is that some avoid whom completely because they feel uncertain how to use it.

Wrong: Who does this belong to?

Others use it where it doesn’t belong, mistakenly thinking they are being grammatically correct.

Wrong: Whom do you think you are?

The best guide is to substitute a personal pronoun for who or whom. If he, she, or they fits, use who (nominative case); if him, her, or them fits, use whom (objective case).

The man who committed the crime…

(he committed the crime)

Whom the gods wish to destroy, they first call promising.—Cyril Connolly (the gods wish to destroy them)

To whom shall I report? (to him, her, or them)

For prying into any human affairs, none are equal to those whom it does not concern.—Victor Hugo (it does not concern them)

An acquaintance is a person whom we know well enough to borrow from, but not well enough to lend to.—Ambrose Bierce (we know him well enough)

People who say they sleep like a baby usually don’t have one.—Leo J. Burke (they say)

Paul Brians (see Web Sites, this page) suggests that you use who if you’re still uncertain after trying this replacement test. “You’ll bother fewer people and have a fair chance of being right.”

Would of: Incorrect usage. Write “would have.”

I would have (not would of) been on time if I hadn’t had a flat tire.

Wreak, Wreck: To wreak is to inflict; it is correctly used with havoc. To wreck is to destroy, so to wreck havoc is incorrect. (To reek havoc would also be incorrect.)

Our affinity for language makes us human. We are never better than when we use words clearly, eloquently, and civilly.—David W. Orr