Successful college writing, Eighth edition - Kathleen T. McWhorter 2020

Process analysis
Patterns of development

Explaining How Something Works or Is Done

In this chapter you will learn to

✵ understand the purpose and function of process analysis essays

✵ use graphic organizers to visualize process analysis essays

✵ integrate process analysis into an essay

✵ read and think critically about process analysis

✵ plan, organize, draft, revise, and edit essays using process analysis

Writing Quick Start

ANALYZE

The photograph above shows a person assembling a piece of furniture. Assembling furniture, equipment, or even toys can be a frustrating, time-consuming task. Instructions are often unclear or poorly written, and diagrams are often confusing. Customers may have to resort to online help or hope that an instructional video has been posted to YouTube.

WRITE

Write a brief paragraph describing how to assemble something (like a bookshelf or a Lego kit) or set something up (like a new DVR or scanner). Your readers are not particularly handy and have little experience with assembly, so be sure to let them know what to expect by informing them if they will need any special tools or equipment and by warning them of common pitfalls and frustrations. (No one wants to end up with extra parts or an object that simply does not work.)

CONNECT

You probably guided your readers step by step, starting with unpacking the box, then addressing how to use the instructions, and ending up with testing out the object (Is the table wobbly? Does the printer work?). If you did, then your paragraph is probably a good example of a process analysis: a step-by-step discussion of how something works, is done, or is made.

Process analysis provides clear, direct, and practical information. A process essay might explain how to register for classes or how a medication works, how to make a pizza, or how a college or university assesses applicants. Its purpose is always to inform. In order for a process essay to be helpful, it must be well organized and written specifically for the intended audience. In this chapter, you will read process analyses; you will also write a process analysis essay or use process analysis in essays that rely on one or more of the other patterns of development.

USING PROCESS ANALYSIS

IN COLLEGE AND THE WORKPLACE

✵ For a child development course, your assignment is to visit a day care center, observe one confrontation between a child and a teacher, and explain how the teacher resolved the conflict.

✵ As part of a chemistry lab report, you need to summarize the procedure you followed in preparing a solution or conducting an experiment.

✵ While working as an engineer at a water treatment plant, you are asked to describe how the city’s drinking water is tested and treated for contamination.

What Are the Characteristics of a Process Analysis Essay?

Most process analysis essays fall into two categories:

✵ A how-to essay explains how to do something to readers who want or need to perform the process. It may explain how to teach a child the alphabet, for instance. Your primary purpose in writing a how-to essay is to present the steps in the process clearly and completely so that your readers can perform the task you describe.

✵ A how-it-works essay explains how something works to readers who want to understand the process but not actually perform it. For example, you might explain how a popular radio talk show screens its callers. Your primary purpose in writing a how-it-works essay is to present the steps in the process clearly enough so that your readers can fully understand it.

Some essays contain elements of both types of process analysis. In writing about how a car alarm system works, for example, you might find it necessary to explain how to activate and deactivate the system as well as how it works.

A process analysis essay should include everything your reader needs to know to understand or perform the process. This usually means providing

✵ an explicit thesis statement

✵ a clear, step-by-step description of the process in chronological order

✵ definitions of key terms, descriptions of needed equipment, and any other important background information

✵ enough detail for readers to follow the process

✵ help with avoiding potential problems

Process Analyses Usually Include an Explicit Thesis Statement

A process analysis usually contains a clear thesis that identifies the process to be discussed and suggests why the process is important or useful to the reader.

"The example shows two sentences with annotations. The first sentence reads, “By carefully preparing for a vacation in a foreign country, you can save time and prevent hassles.” An accompanying annotation reads, “How to.” In this sentence, “Carefully preparing for a vacation in a foreign country"" is the “process,” and “you can save time and prevent hassles” identifies “why it's useful.” The second sentence reads, “Although understanding the grieving process will not lessen the grief that you experience after the death of a loved one, knowing that your experiences are normal does provide some comfort.” An accompanying annotation reads, “How it works.” In this sentence, “The grieving process ”isthe “process,” and “knowing that your experiences are normal does provide some comfort” identifies ""why it's useful.”  "

Process Analysis Is Organized Chronologically

The steps or events in a process analysis are usually organized in chronological order — that is, the order in which the steps are normally completed. For essays that explain lengthy processes, the steps may be grouped into categories or divided into substeps, with headings such as , and Preparing for the Interview, During the InterviewAfter the Interview. Transitions, such as Before you are called for an interview or Once the interview is over, are often used to make the order of steps and substeps clear.

Sometimes the steps of a process do not have to occur in any particular order. For example, in an essay on how to resolve a dispute between two coworkers, the order of the recommended actions may depend on the nature of the dispute. In this situation, some logical progression of recommended actions should be used, such as starting with informal or simple steps and progressing to more formal or complex ones.

EXERCISE 14.1

WRITING A THESIS STATEMENT FOR PROCESS ANALYSIS

Choose one of the following processes. The process should be one you are familiar with and can explain to others. Draft a working thesis statement and a chronological list of the steps or stages of the process.

1. How to study for an exam

2. How to use online dating services

3. How to end a relationship with a friend or partner

4. How to get an A in your writing class

5. How to complete an application (for college, a job, a credit card)

Process Analysis Provides Background Information Helpful to Readers

In some process analysis essays, readers may need additional information to understand the process. For example, in an essay explaining how scuba diving works to readers who are unfamiliar with the topic, you might need to define unfamiliar terms, such as oxygen toxicity or decompression sickness; you might need to provide background information about risks of injury or a history of the sport; and you would need to describe equipment such as dive masks, buoyancy compensators, and dive gauges. In a how-to essay, you might also need to explain where to obtain the equipment or training.

For more on defining terms, see Chapter 17.

EXERCISE 14.2

PROVIDING BACKGROUND INFORMATION IN A PROCESS ESSAY

For one of the following processes, list (a) the technical terms that you need to define in order to explain the process, (b) useful background information you might include in the essay, and (c) the types of equipment needed to perform the task.

1. How to perform a task at home or at work (such as changing the oil in a car or taking notes during a court hearing)

2. How a piece of equipment or a machine works (such as a treadmill or a lawn mower)

3. How to repair an object (such as a leaky faucet or a ripped piece of clothing)

Process Analysis Provides an Appropriate Level of Detail

In deciding what to include in a process analysis essay, be careful not to overwhelm your readers with too many details. An explanation of how to perform CPR written by and for physicians could be highly technical, but the same description should be much simpler when written for volunteers in the local ambulance corps.

For a process involving many complex steps or highly specialized equipment, consider including a drawing or diagram to help your readers visualize the steps they need to follow or understand. For example, in an essay explaining how to detect a wiring problem in an electric stove, you might include a diagram of the stove’s circuitry.

To keep your writing lively and interesting when explaining technical or scientific processes, use sensory details and figures of speech. Rather than giving dry technical details, try using descriptive language.

Process Analysis Anticipates Difficulties and Offers Solutions

A how-to essay should anticipate potential trouble spots or areas of confusion and offer advice on how to avoid or resolve problems. It should also warn readers of any difficult, complicated, or critical steps, encouraging them to pay special attention or take extra care. For instance, in a how-to essay on hanging wallpaper, you would warn readers about the difficulties of handling sheets of wallpaper and suggest folding the sheets to make them easier to work with.

EXERCISE 14.3

IDENTIFYING POTENTIAL DIFFICULTIES IN A PROCESS

For one of the processes listed in Exercise 14.1 or Exercise 14.2, identify potential trouble spots in the process and describe how to avoid or resolve them.

The following readings demonstrate the techniques for writing effective process analyses as discussed above. The first reading is annotated to point out how Susan Silk and Barry Goldman use these techniques to help readers avoid saying the wrong thing to a suffering friend or relative. As you read the second essay, try to identify for yourself how the writer uses the techniques of process analysis to help readers understand how to transform a “shitty first draft” into a compelling piece of writing.

READING: HOW-TO ESSAY

How Not to Say the Wrong Thing

Susan Silk and Barry Goldman

Susan Silk is the founder and CEO of MSI Strategic Communication, a company that provides communication consulting services. Barry Goldman is an arbitrator, mediator, and author. Using their experience, they have written an essay to help readers avoid saying the wrong thing when trying to provide comfort to someone who needs it.

Before Reading

1. Preview: Use the steps listed in Chapter 2.

2. Connect: Think about a time you (or someone you know) said the wrong thing. How did you (or the other person) try to repair the relationship?

While Reading

Study the annotations to identify the characteristics of process analysis.

Introduction: Presents an anecdote to help readers identify with the situation

1When Susan had breast cancer, we heard a lot of lame remarks, but our favorite came from one of Susan’s colleagues. She wanted, she needed, to visit Susan after the surgery, but Susan didn’t feel like having visitors, and she said so. Her colleague’s response? “This isn’t just about you.”

2“It’s not?” Susan wondered. “My breast cancer is not about me? It’s about you?”

Background: Provides another anecdote to show problem is widespread

3The same theme came up again when our friend Katie had a brain aneurysm. She was in intensive care for a long time and finally got out and into a step-down unit. She was no longer covered with tubes and lines and monitors, but she was still in rough shape. A friend came and saw her and then stepped into the hall with Katie’s husband, Pat. “I wasn’t prepared for this,” she told him. “I don’t know if I can handle it.”

4This woman loves Katie, and she said what she did because the sight of Katie in this condition moved her so deeply. But it was the wrong thing to say. And it was wrong in the same way Susan’s colleague’s remark was wrong.

Thesis: Thesis identifies process and indicates why it is important to learn.

5Susan has since developed a simple technique to help people avoid this mistake. It works for all kinds of crises: medical, legal, financial, romantic, even existential. She calls it the Ring Theory.

"The diagram has a series of concentric circles, labeled as follows (from inside out): “The aggrieved or afflicted”, “significant other, parent, sis, etcetera”, “true friends”, “colleagues”, “lookie loos”. At the top, an arrow points inward next to the words “Comfort IN”. At the bottom, arrows point outward next to the words, “Dump OUT.”"

Organization: Transitional words and phrases signal chronological stages of process.

6Draw a circle. This is the center ring. In it, put the name of the person at the center of the current trauma. For Katie’s aneurysm, that’s Katie. Now draw a larger circle around the first one. In that ring put the name of the person next closest to the trauma. In the case of Katie’s aneurysm, that was Katie’s husband, Pat. Repeat the process as many times as you need to. In each larger ring put the next closest people. Parents and children before more distant relatives. Intimate friends in smaller rings, less intimate friends in larger ones. When you are done you have a Kvetching Order. One of Susan’s patients found it useful to tape it to her refrigerator.

7Here are the rules. The person in the center ring can say anything she wants to anyone, anywhere. She can kvetch and complain and whine and moan and curse the heavens and say, “Life is unfair” and “Why me?” That’s the one payoff for being in the center ring.

8Everyone else can say those things too, but only to people in larger rings.

Anticipation of difficulties and solutions: Identifies trouble spots and offers advice.

9When you are talking to a person in a ring smaller than yours, someone closer to the center of the crisis, the goal is to help. Listening is often more helpful than talking. But if you’re going to open your mouth, ask yourself if what you are about to say is likely to provide comfort and support. If it isn’t, don’t say it. Don’t, for example, give advice. People who are suffering from trauma don’t need advice. They need comfort and support. So say, “I’m sorry” or “This must really be hard for you” or “Can I bring you a pot roast?” Don’t say, “You should hear what happened to me” or “Here’s what I would do if I were you.” And don’t say, “This is really bringing me down.”

Point of view: Second person (you) is commonly used in how-to essays, though it may be frowned on in academic writing.

10If you want to scream or cry or complain, if you want to tell someone how shocked you are or how icky you feel, or whine about how it reminds you of all the terrible things that have happened to you lately, that’s fine. It’s a perfectly normal response. Just do it to someone in a bigger ring.

11Comfort IN, dump OUT.

12There was nothing wrong with Katie’s friend saying she was not prepared for how horrible Katie looked, or even that she didn’t think she could handle it. The mistake was that she said those things to Pat. She dumped IN.

13Complaining to someone in a smaller ring than yours doesn’t do either of you any good. On the other hand, being supportive to her principal caregiver may be the best thing you can do for the patient.

14Most of us know this. Almost nobody would complain to the patient about how rotten she looks. Almost no one would say that looking at her makes them think of the fragility of life and their own closeness to death. In other words, we know enough not to dump into the center ring. Ring Theory merely expands that intuition and makes it more concrete: Don’t just avoid dumping into the center ring, avoid dumping into any ring smaller than your own.

Conclusion: Final paragraph cleverly connects to the introduction and speaks directly to the reader.

15Remember, you can say whatever you want if you just wait until you’re talking to someone in a larger ring than yours.

16And don’t worry. You’ll get your turn in the center ring. You can count on that.

Visualize a Process Analysis Essay: Create a Graphic Organizer

Seeing the content and structure of an essay in simplified, visual form can help you analyze a reading, recall key steps as you generate ideas for an essay, and structure your own writing. Graphic Organizer 14.1 shows the basic structure of a process analysis essay. When your main purpose is to explain a process, follow this standard format. When you incorporate process analysis into an essay using one or more other patterns of development, briefly introduce the process and then move directly to the steps involved. If the process is complex, you may want to add a brief summary of it before the transition back to the main topic of the essay.

For more on creating a graphic organizer, see Chapter 2.

GRAPHIC ORGANIZER 14.1 The Basic Structure of a Process Analysis Essay

"The items in the left column of the chart are numbered here for clarity. Items bulleted here are attached to the associated numbered items by lines. Downward arrows connect the bulleted items. 1. Title 2. Introduction (Bullet) Background information, Thesis statement. 3. Body: Steps in the process (Bullet) Step 1 through 4, among which step 1 asterisk consists of two sub-steps, labeled 1 and 2. These steps and sub-steps are connected. 4. Conclusion (Bullet) Draw essay to a close and refers back to the thesis. A text below reads, “asterisk In some essays, substeps may be included.” "

READING: HOW-IT-WORKS ESSAY

Shitty First Drafts

Anne Lamott

Anne Lamott has published several nonfiction works, including Bird by Bird: Instructions on Writing and Life (1995), from which this essay is taken; Small Victories: Spotting Improbable Moments of Grace (2014); Hallelujah Anyway: Rediscovering Mercy (2017); and Almost Everything: Notes on Hope (2018). She is also the author of several novels, including Blue Shoe (2002) and Imperfect Birds (2010). Before reading, preview the selection and make connections by thinking about first drafts you have written. Were you satisfied with them? Why or why not? While reading, paraphrase each step of the process, and think about how Lamott reveals her attitude toward writing. Read the essay first, and then compare it to Graphic Organizer 14.2. What was omitted and why?

1Now, practically even better news than that of short assignments is the idea of shitty first drafts. All good writers write them. This is how they end up with good second drafts and terrific third drafts. People tend to look at successful writers who are getting their books published and maybe even doing well financially and think that they sit down at their desks every morning feeling like a million dollars, feeling great about who they are and how much talent they have and what a great story they have to tell; that they take in a few deep breaths, push back their sleeves, roll their necks a few times to get all the cricks out, and dive in, typing fully formed passages as fast as a court reporter. But this is just the fantasy of the uninitiated. I know some very great writers, writers you love who write beautifully and have made a great deal of money, and not one of them sits down routinely feeling wildly enthusiastic and confident. Not one of them writes elegant first drafts. All right, one of them does, but we do not like her very much. We do not think that she has a rich inner life or that God likes her or can even stand her. (Although when I mentioned this to my priest friend Tom, he said you can safely assume you’ve created God in your own image when it turns out that God hates all the same people you do.)

2Very few writers really know what they are doing until they’ve done it. Nor do they go about their business feeling dewy and thrilled. They do not type a few stiff warm-up sentences and then find themselves bounding along like huskies across the snow. One writer I know tells me that he sits down every morning and says to himself nicely, “It’s not like you don’t have a choice, because you do — you can either type, or kill yourself.” We all often feel like we are pulling teeth, even those writers whose prose ends up being the most natural and fluid. The right words and sentences just do not come pouring out like ticker tape most of the time. Now, Muriel Spark is said to have felt that she was taking dictation from God every morning — sitting there, one supposes, plugged into a Dictaphone, typing away, humming. But this is a very hostile and aggressive position. One might hope for bad things to rain down on a person like this.

3For me and most of the other writers I know, writing is not rapturous. In fact, the only way I can get anything written at all is to write really, really shitty first drafts.

4The first draft is the child’s draft, where you let it all pour out and then let it romp all over the place, knowing that no one is going to see it and that you can shape it later. You just let this childlike part of you channel whatever voices and visions come through and onto the page. If one of the characters wants to say, “Well, so what, Mr. Poopy Pants?” you let her. No one is going to see it. If the kid wants to get into really sentimental, weepy, emotional territory, you let him. Just get it all down on paper because there may be something great in those six crazy pages that you would never have gotten to by more rational, grown-up means. There may be something in the very last line of the very last paragraph on page six that you just love, that is so beautiful or wild that you now know what you’re supposed to be writing about, more or less, or in what direction you might go — but there was no way to get to this without first getting through the first five and a half pages.

5I used to write food reviews for California magazine before it folded. (My writing food reviews had nothing to do with the magazine folding, although every single review did cause a couple of canceled subscriptions. Some readers took umbrage at my comparing mounds of vegetable puree with various ex-presidents’ brains.) These reviews always took two days to write. First I’d go to a restaurant several times with a few opinionated, articulate friends in tow. I’d sit there writing down everything anyone said that was at all interesting or funny. Then on the following Monday I’d sit down at my desk with my notes and try to write the review. Even after I’d been doing this for years, panic would set in. I’d try to write a lead, but instead I’d write a couple of dreadful sentences, XX them out, try again, XX everything out, and then feel despair and worry settle on my chest like an x-ray apron. It’s over, I’d think calmly. I’m not going to be able to get the magic to work this time. I’m ruined. I’m through. I’m toast. Maybe, I’d think, I can get my old job back as a clerk-typist. But probably not. I’d get up and study my teeth in the mirror for a while. Then I’d stop, remember to breathe, make a few phone calls, hit the kitchen and chow down. Eventually I’d go back and sit down at my desk, and sigh for the next ten minutes. Finally I would pick up my one-inch picture frame, stare into it as if for the answer, and every time the answer would come: all I had to do was to write a really shitty first draft of, say, the opening paragraph. And no one was going to see it.

6So I’d start writing without reining myself in. It was almost just typing, just making my fingers move. And the writing would be terrible. I’d write a lead paragraph that was a whole page, even though the entire review could only be three pages long, and then I’d start writing up descriptions of the food, one dish at a time, bird by bird, and the critics would be sitting on my shoulders, commenting like cartoon characters. They’d be pretending to snore, or rolling their eyes at my overwrought descriptions, no matter how hard I tried to tone those descriptions down, no matter how conscious I was of what a friend said to me gently in my early days of restaurant reviewing. “Annie,” she said, “it is just a piece of chicken. It is just a bit of cake.”

7But because by then I had been writing for so long, I would eventually let myself trust the process — sort of, more or less. I’d write a first draft that was maybe twice as long as it should be, with a self-indulgent and boring beginning, stupefying descriptions of the meal, lots of quotes from my black-humored friends that made them sound more like the Manson girls than food lovers, and no ending to speak of. The whole thing would be so long and incoherent and hideous that for the rest of the day I’d obsess about getting creamed by a car before I could write a decent second draft. I’d worry that people would read what I’d written and believe that the accident had really been a suicide, that I had panicked because my talent was waning and my mind was shot.

8The next day, I’d sit down, go through it all with a colored pen, take out everything I possibly could, find a new lead somewhere on the second page, figure out a kicky place to end it, and then write a second draft. It always turned out fine, sometimes even funny and weird and helpful. I’d go over it one more time and mail it in.

9Then, a month later, when it was time for another review, the whole process would start again, complete with the fears that people would find my first draft before I could rewrite it.

10Almost all good writing begins with terrible first efforts. You need to start somewhere. Start by getting something — anything — down on paper. A friend of mine says that the first draft is the down draft — you just get it down. The second draft is the up draft — you fix it up. You try to say what you have to say more accurately. And the third draft is the dental draft, where you check every tooth, to see if it’s loose or cramped or decayed, or even, God help us, healthy.

EXERCISE 14.4

DRAWING A GRAPHIC ORGANIZER

Using Graphic Organizer 14.1 or 14.2 as a basis, draw a graphic organizer for “How Not to Say the Wrong Thing.”

HOW WRITERS READ

PROCESS ANALYSIS

EXERCISE 14.5

READING CRITICALLY

Apply the questions in the “How Writers Read” box above to the selection “Shitty First Drafts.”

GRAPHIC ORGANIZER 14.2 The Structure of “Shitty First Drafts”

"The items in the left column of the chart are numbered here for clarity. Items bulleted here are attached to the associated numbered items by lines. Downward arrows connect the bulleted items. 1. Title (Bullet) “Shitty First Drafts.” 2. Introduction (Bullet) The author presents information about her professional writing experience and the experiences of other writers. 3. Thesis statement (Bullet) The only way the author can write anything is to write really, really shitty first draft. 4. Body: Steps in the process (Bullet) 1. Begin writing, 2. Write an opening paragraph, 3. Write the rest of the first draft, 4. Edit, 5. Write a second draft, 6. Proofread, and 7. Write third draft if needed. 5. Conclusion (Bullet) Start by getting something down, fix it up in the second draft, and check it carefully before writing the third draft. "

Integrate Process Analysis into an Essay

You may find it helpful to incorporate a process analysis into a discussion that relies on a different pattern of development. For instance, in a descriptive essay about an alcohol abuse program for high school students, you might decide to include a brief process analysis of how alcohol impairs mental functioning. Lamott incorporates illustration and description to make her process analysis engaging. Here are a few suggestions for incorporating process analysis effectively into essays based on other patterns of development:

1. Explain only the major steps in the process. Don’t go over every step in detail, to avoid diverting your readers from the primary focus of your essay.

2. Introduce the process analysis with a transitional sentence that alerts readers that a process analysis will follow. For example, here is how you might introduce a brief summary of the process by which AIDS spreads through HIV (human immunodeficiency virus):

Before you explain to teenagers how to avoid contracting HIV, you need to let them know what they are avoiding. Teenagers need to know that HIV is transmitted by …

3. It is sometimes helpful to use the word process or procedure to let readers know that a process analysis is to follow. In the preceding example, the final sentence might be revised to read as follows:

Teenagers need to know that HIV is transmitted by the following process.

4. Once you have completed the process analysis, alert readers that you are about to return to the main topic. You might conclude the process with a summary statement like this:

Above all, teenagers need to know that HIV is transmitted through an exchange of bodily fluids.

PREWRITING DRAFTING REVISING EDITING & PROOFREADING

A Guided Writing Assignment*

PROCESS ANALYSIS

Your Essay Assignment

Write a process analysis essay explaining how something works or is done. Choose a topic you are familiar with or that you can learn about through observation or research. Try to select a topic that your readers — your instructor and your fellow students — will find interesting or useful. Below are some options to help you get started.

How-To Essay Topics

✵ How to improve your (study habits, wardrobe, batting average)

✵ How to be a successful (diver, parent, gardener)

✵ How to make or buy (an object for personal use or enjoyment)

How-It-Works Essay Topics

✵ How a decision is made to (accept a student at a college, add or eliminate a state agency)

✵ How (a quilt, a news broadcast, a Web site, a football team) is put together

✵ How your college (spends tuition revenues, hires professors, raises money)

^* The writing process is recursive; that is, you may find yourself revising as you draft or prewriting as you revise. This is especially true when writing on a computer. Your writing process may also differ from project to project or from that of your classmates.

PREWRITING

1 Select a topic from the list above, or create one of your own.

Use the following tips to select a process to write about:

✵ For a how-to essay, choose a process that you can visualize or perform as you write. Keep the equipment nearby for easy reference. For example, if you are writing an essay about how to scuba dive, it may be helpful to have your scuba equipment in front of you.

✵ For a how-it-works essay, choose a topic about which you have background knowledge or for which you can find reliable information readily.

✵ Choose a topic that is useful and interesting to your readers. Unless you can find a way to make an essay about how to do laundry interesting, do not write about it.

2 Consider your purpose, audience, and point of view.

Ask yourself these questions:

✵ Will my purpose be to express myself, inform, or persuade? (Process analyses tend to be informative.)

✵ Who is my audience? Will readers need any background information to understand my essay? Will they need me to define terms or describe (or diagram) equipment? How much detail do I need to go into for them to follow the steps or understand the process? Where will they need special help or warnings? (Check whether your readers will need background, definitions, or warnings by asking one or two classmates to tell you how they would explain key terms to a novice.)

✵ What point of view best suits my purpose and audience? How-to essays commonly use the second person, addressing the reader directly as you. (Hint: Second person is often considered inappropriate in college writing.) How-it-works essays commonly use the third person (he, she, it).

3 Explore your subject and generate details.

Use idea-generating strategies to come up with the details your process analysis essay will use.

1. List the steps or diagram the process, keeping these questions in mind:

o — What separate actions are involved?

o — What steps are obvious to me but may not be obvious to someone unfamiliar with the process?

o — What steps, if omitted, will lead to problems or failure?

2. Ask a friend or classmate to act out your process. What problems did this person encounter? What additional details did you need to add?

3. Do some research to see how others have described the process. What details do other writers include? Do they generally add steps you’ve omitted or omit steps you’ve included? Be sure to keep track of any information you borrow from sources.

4. Alone or in pairs, list the words looks like, sounds like, smells like, and feels like across the top of a page and then list as many words or comparisons below as you can think of in ten or fifteen minutes.

DRAFTING

4 Draft your thesis statement.

Tell readers why the process is important, beneficial, or relevant to them:

"The text reads, “(to be filled with: process name) is important or beneficial or relevant because (to be filled with: state reasons audience can relate to).” "

Be sure to consider what your audience will find compelling.

5 Organize your essay.

Organize your ideas logically.

✵ For a process with fewer than ten steps, you can usually arrange the steps chronologically, devoting one paragraph per step.

✵ For a more complicated process, group the steps into three or four categories; use one paragraph per group, including a topic sentence to introduce the group and the rest of the paragraph to explain the individual steps involved. For an essay on how to run a garage sale, the steps might be grouped as follows:

✵ Group 1: Locating and collecting merchandise

✵ Group 2: Advertising

✵ Group 3: Pricing and setting up

✵ Group 4: Conducting the sale

Hint: An outline or graphic organizer will allow you to experiment to find the best order for supporting paragraphs.

To determine how usable your instructions are, ask a classmate to try them out.

6 Write a first draft of your process analysis essay.

Use the following guidelines to keep your process analysis on track:

✵ The introduction should present your thesis statement, include necessary background information, and convince readers the process is relevant to them. For lengthy or complex processes, consider including an overview of the steps.

✵ The body paragraphs should identify each step and make clear why it is important to the process. If the process is complex, including a drawing or diagram to outline steps can be helpful. (If including a graphic, introduce it in your essay and refer to it by its title.)

✵ — Use headings that name your main topics and signal changes in topic, whether your essay is brief or lengthy.

✵ — Use transitions, such as before, next, and finally, to signal steps in the process.

✵ — Make sure your tone is appropriate to your audience and purpose. In some situations, a matter-of-fact tone is appropriate; in others, an emotional or humorous tone may be suitable.

✵ The conclusion might emphasize the value or importance of the process, describe particular situations in which it is useful, or offer a final amusing or emphatic comment or anecdote. An essay that ends with the final step in the process may sound incomplete.

REVISING

7 Evaluate your draft, and revise as necessary.

Use Figure 14.1, “Flowchart for Revising a Process Analysis Essay,” to evaluate and revise your draft.

FIGURE 14.1 Flowchart for Revising a Process Analysis

"The revision process includes several questions with respective revision strategies as follows. Question 1 reads, “Highlight your thesis statement. Does it make clear the importance of your process?” If “no,” proceed to the revision strategies that read, “Ask yourself: Why would readers want or need to know this process? Incorporate the answers into your thesis statement.” If question 1 answers “yes,” proceed to question 2 that reads, “Number the steps of your process. Are they in chronological order (or some other logical progression)? Is the order clear?” If question 2 answers “no,” proceed to the revision strategies as follows. “Create a graphic organizer or outline to determine the best order.” “Visualize or carry out the process to determine if steps are missing.” “Rearrange steps and add transitions.” If question 2 answers “yes,” proceed to question 3.  "

"The questions and respective revision strategies of the continued process are as follows. Question 3 reads, “[Bracket] any background information in your introduction. Is it sufficient? Have you provided an overview or shown the importance of the process?” If “no,” proceed to the following strategies: “Add an overview, if necessary.” “Give an example of a situation in which the process might be used.” “Explain that related processes and ideas depend on the process you are describing.” If Question 3 answers “yes,” proceed to question 4 that reads, “Place an ""cross sign X"" beside any technical terms you have used. Have you defined them? Are your definitions clear?” If question 4 answers “no,” proceed to the following revision strategies: “Ask a classmate to read your draft and identify any other terms that need to be defined or clarified.” “Add or revise definitions as needed.” If question 4 answers “yes,” proceed to question 5 that reads, “Circle any equipment you have mentioned. Have you included all necessary equipment? Will all of it be familiar to readers?” If the question 5 answers “no,” proceed to the following strategies: “Add equipment you have overlooked.” “Describe equipment that might be unfamiliar to readers.” If question 5 answers “yes,” proceed to Question 6 that reads, “Place checkmarks beside key details of the process. Have you included an appropriate level of detail for your readers?” If question 6 answers “no,” proceed to the following strategies: “Add or delete background information.” “Add or delete definitions of technical terms.” “Add or delete other detail.” If question 6 answers “yes,” proceed to question 7 that reads, “For a how-to essay, underline sections where you have anticipated potential difficulties for your readers. Have you anticipated all likely trouble spots? Are these sections clear and reassuring?” If question 7 answers “no,” proceed to the following strategies: “Add more detail about critical steps.” “Add warnings about confusing or difficult steps.” “Offer advice on what to do if things go wrong.” If question 7 answers “yes,” proceed to question 8 that reads, “Reread your introduction and conclusion. Is each effective?” If question 8 answers “no,” proceed to the following revision strategy: “Revise your introduction and conclusion so that they meet the guidelines in Chapter 7.” "

EDITING & PROOFREADING

8 Edit and proofread your essay.

Refer to Chapter 9 for help with

✵ editing sentences to avoid wordiness, making your verb choices strong and active, and making your sentences clear, varied, and parallel

✵ editing words for tone and diction, connotation, and concrete and specific language

Look out especially for comma splices. A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined only by a comma. To correct a comma splice

✵ add a coordinating conjunction (, or and, but, for, nor, or, soyet)

"The text reads, “The first step in creating a flower arrangement is to choose an attractive container, the container should not be the focal point of the arrangement.” In this sentence, the word “but” is added before “the container.” "

✵ change the comma to a semicolon

The text reads, “Following signs is one way to navigate a busy airport, looking for a map is another. "In this sentence, the comma after the word “airport” is crossed out and replaced with a semicolon.

✵ divide the sentence into two sentences

The text reads, “To lower fat consumption in your diet, first learn to read food product labels, next eliminate those products that contain trans fats or unsaturated fats.” In this sentence, the comma after the word “labels” is crossed out and replaced with a period, and the letter “N” of the word “next” is capitalized.

✵ subordinate one clause to the other

"The text reads, “Place the pill on the cat’s tongue, hold its mouth closed, rubbing its chin until it swallows the pill.” In this sentence, the word “Place” is crossed out and replaced with the phrase “After you have placed.” "

Readings: Process Analysis in Action

STUDENTS WRITE

Going Vegan: How to Have Your Eggless Cake, and Eat It, Too!

Justine Appel

Justine Appel wrote the following essay in response to an assignment that asked her to explain a process that she had mastered. As you read the essay, consider whether the steps described in the essay clearly explain the process of adopting a vegan lifestyle.

The paragraphs in this essay are numbered 1 through 13.

Paragraph 1: As America’s vast and varied food culture continues to change shape over the years, dietary advice runs rampant, experts relentlessly recommend and disagree, and restaurants strive to make room for all restrictions from low-carb to gluten-free. Many people use the way they eat not only to address their health, but also to express their values. One such diet that continues to draw attention is veganism.

Paragraph 2: Although the vegetarian diet, which excludes meat, fish, and poultry, is widely accepted in many parts of the world, the idea of avoiding all foods, fabrics, and substances derived from animals often seems difficult or even extreme in the United States today. Nonetheless, for those who feel passionately about animal welfare and environmental health, adopting a vegan lifestyle does not have to be complicated; with some research, preparation, and the right attitude, adopting veganism can become second nature.

The above paragraph 2 provides the background and defines veganism. Thesis sentence, “Nonetheless, for those who feel passionately about animal welfare and environmental health, adopting a vegan lifestyle does not have to be complicated; with some research, preparation, and the right attitude, adopting veganism can become second nature,” reveals relevance of topic for readers who might be considering “going vegan.”

Paragraph 3: As with all major lifestyle changes, the very first step is to evaluate the reasons for making a change. While there is a standard concept of veganism, all vegans have their own reasons for abstaining from animal products, which govern their individual choices. Some people are vegan for health reasons, and thus probably would not turn down a pair of wool socks. Some are only opposed to industrial farming, and would feel comfortable eating eggs from a small, local farm. Still others do not believe in using animals for human consumption at all, and avoid honey, glue, silk, and refined sugar (which is sometimes processed with animal bone char) on top of the usual list of animal-based food (Bratskeir).

The above paragraph 3 shows the organization. Topic sentence identifies step 1 (the very first step is to evaluate the reasons for making a change): think about the reasons for making a change; uses a transition through the phrase “As with all major lifestyle changes” to keep readers on track.

Paragraph 4: After considering the grounds for choosing a vegan diet, it is important to maintain a critical mindset towards these issues. Being vegan is a deliberate ethical choice, but that does not mean one’s ethics as a vegan cannot evolve. Staying conscious about the effects of such a lifestyle is a process, so consider this step “repeat as needed.” For example, replacing dairy milk and eggs with coconut milk and tropical fruit for someone living in New England might not align with their desire to reduce their ecological footprint. Eating vegan is a process, not a destination, and critical engagement is an important part of maintaining such a diet.

The above paragraph 4 also shows the organization. Transition through the phrase “After considering the grounds for choosing a vegan diet” provides segue to step 2 (it is important to maintain a critical mindset towards these issues): remain critical about the reasons for choosing veganism. The latter part of the paragraph supports by offering an example, “replacing dairy milk and eggs with coconut milk and tropical fruit for someone living in New England might not align with their desire to reduce their ecological footprint,” to make the concept of the “critical mindset” concrete.

The essay continues from the previous page as follows.

Paragraph 5: The next step is a little easier, though it requires some investigation. Start to become familiar with the many forms of animal products and learn how to distinguish them on ingredient labels. While some animal ingredients are obvious (butter, milk, eggs), others are disguised by unfamiliar vocabulary. Gelatin, a substance used in marshmallows, Jello, and gummy candy, usually comes from animal bones and cartilage. Lecithin is a common food additive that can come from animal tissue. A quick online search will procure several lists of hidden animal products. Fortunately, milk and eggs are common allergens, and will usually be listed in bold in the allergy warning below the ingredients list, which is much faster to find.

The above paragraph 5 shows organization. Transition sentence, “The next step is a little easier, though it requires some investigation,” introduces step 3 (Start to become familiar with the many forms of animal products and learn how to distinguish them on ingredient labels): learn to identify animal products. The words “Gelatin,” “Lecithin,” “milk,” and “eggs” support and identify animal ingredients that may be unfamiliar to readers.

Paragraph 6: Practicing veganism is not just about avoidance. It is important for vegans to know what to seek out, too. Since animal-based foods are good sources of several important nutrients, take the time to research some adequate substitutes and alternatives. It is especially important to find good sources of protein, iron, and vitamin B 12, since these nutrients are most easily available in animal products. Foods made from nuts, beans, or soy have high levels of protein and are usually quite filling (Shubrook). Meanwhile, lentils, beans, and spinach are good vegan sources of iron (Leonard). Many fruits and vegetables are rich in other important dietary nutrients, and it is important to eat both and not just refined grains and heavily processed food (“The Right Plant-Based Diet”). All bodies have different needs, so consult a doctor or nutritionist about how to get a healthy amount of vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients. In the meantime, eating a diverse array of foods is always a good measure.

The above paragraph 6 shows organization. Transition sentence, “Practicing veganism is not just about avoidance,” introduces step 4 (It is important for vegans to know what to seek out, too): learn what foods to eat for a healthful diet. The part, “Foods made from nuts, beans, or soy have high levels of protein and are usually quite filling (Shubrook). Meanwhile, lentils, beans, and spinach are good vegan sources of iron (Leonard). Many fruits and vegetables are rich in other important dietary nutrients, and it is important to eat both and not just refined grains and heavily processed food (’The Right Plant-Based Diet’),” supports and offers specific details to help readers maintain healthy protein and iron levels.

Paragraph 7: Knowing how to shop for all these vegan ingredients is a critical part of maintaining a healthy vegan diet. Vegan staples can be found all over an average grocery store, and one of the many exciting aspects of going vegan is discovering new ingredients and dishes. Lentils, seeds, nut butters, and whole grains are standard grocery items that vegans can eat, while tempeh, nutritional yeast, and chia seeds are more adventurous purchases. Health food stores, with their bulk sections and plant-based protein brands, provide a wide range of choices for vegans that often elude them in big grocery chains. There are countless vegan meals and

(The sentence continues on the next page.)

The above paragraph 7 shows organization. Another transitional sentence, “Knowing how to shop for all these vegan ingredients is a critical part of maintaining a healthy vegan diet,” introduces step 5 (Vegan staples can be found all over an average grocery store, and one of the many exciting aspects of going vegan is discovering new ingredients and dishes): go food shopping. The words “Lentils,” “seeds,” “nut butters,” “whole grains,” “tempeh,” “nutritional yeast,” and “chia seeds” support and give a list of familiar and unfamiliar foods (lentils, nut butters, and so forth) that can support a healthy vegan diet.

The essay continues from the previous page as follows.

Paragraph 7: snacks out there, so do not waste time and energy buying or preparing food that is unappetizing.

Paragraph 8: Knowing how to cook goes hand in hand with knowing how to shop and is an empowering tool for vegans, since it allows them to make dishes they will love and can share with friends and family. The Internet has tons of great cooking tutorials and blogs, which are often more personal and helpful than standard recipes. Use the Internet as a resource for tips on vegan cooking, and supplement with a few vegan cookbooks or favorite recipes from friends and family members. Sometimes the best recipes are the simplest ones — think stir-fries, veggie sandwiches, and easy soups. A major advantage to cooking plant-based meals is that mistakes never pose the same level of risk as undercooking meat. Finding one night a week to cook meals in bulk will mean less cooking down the road. Leftovers are a vegan’s best friend.

The above paragraph 8 shows organization. Transition, “goes hand in hand with knowing how to shop,” introduces step 6 (Knowing how to cook is an empowering tool for vegans, since it allows them to make dishes they will love and can share with friends and family): polish cooking skills.

Paragraph 9: As useful as it is to know how to cook, going vegan should not mean the end of going out to eat. Become familiar with the good restaurants in town that have vegan options and recommend them when a group of friends is going out for lunch or dinner. Once there, do not be afraid to ask the waiter about the ingredients. It is easy for them to find out, and vegans eventually develop a shrewd sense of what aligns with their diet and what does not. For example, naan, a type of Indian bread, usually comes with butter, whereas roti, another type, does not. When in an unfamiliar city, look for Thai, Chinese, Indian, or Middle Eastern restaurants, as they are usually the most accommodating to vegan diets.

The above paragraph 9 shows organization. Transitional sentence, “As useful as it is to know how to cook, going vegan should not mean the end of going out to eat,” prepares readers for step 7 (Become familiar with the good restaurants in town that have vegan options and recommend them when a group of friends is going out for lunch or dinner): learn about restaurants with vegan options. The sentence, “For example, naan, a type of Indian bread, usually comes with butter, whereas roti, another type, does not,” supports and identifies a potential trouble spot (eating out) and offers several restaurant types like Thai, Chinese, Indian, or Middle Eastern restaurants from which the reader may choose.

Paragraph 10: Unfortunately, it is not uncommon for vegans to get stuck somewhere without enough food to satisfy their hunger, particularly when traveling in regions farther away from big cities. While American cities and coastal regions usually contain a wider diversity of vegan food, some areas are not as amenable to plant-based diets. Make sure to carry high-protein snacks when traveling to avoid feeling starved. Being prepared with trail mix and other travel-hardy food can save the day when the only restaurants around are steakhouses or seafood joints.

The above paragraph 10 shows organization. Transitional sentence, “Unfortunately, it is not uncommon for vegans to get stuck somewhere without enough food to satisfy their hunger, particularly when traveling in regions farther away from big cities,” introduces step 8 (While American cities and coastal regions usually contain a wider diversity of vegan food, some areas are not as amenable to plant-based diets), with a topic sentence on satisfying your hunger. The sentence, “Make sure to carry high-protein snacks when traveling to avoid feeling starved,” supports and identifies trouble spot (traveling while vegan) and advice for avoiding the problem.

The essay continues on the next page.

The essay continues from the previous page as follows.

Paragraph 11: Establishing a vegan diet as an individual is one thing; social gatherings as a vegan are another. Eating with a crowd takes a level of etiquette and preparedness that omnivores rarely have to think about. Declining to eat meat and dairy can bring up a surprising amount of awkwardness in social settings. Hosts offering their guests food is a matter of hospitality, and turning down certain foods, especially on ethical grounds, can feel uncomfortable and even rude. While it can be upsetting to refuse generous offers of animal-derived food, there are ways to pre-empt those situations. A smart vegan tells the host of their dietary restrictions in advance, and a thoughtful one asks if they can contribute a vegan dish to the meal. Vegans should communicate openly with their friends and relatives so they will not receive non-vegan gifts or surprise anyone with their food choices. Friends and family may forget or make mistakes, which is okay. If anything, take it as an opportunity to share opinions and knowledge and to learn about why others make the food choices they make. Although preaching about the moral superiority of one’s diet will most certainly be unwelcome, an earnest description of veganism might make for interesting, friendly dialogue.

The above paragraph 11 shows organization. Transitional sentence, “Establishing a vegan diet as an individual is one thing; social gatherings as a vegan are another,” prepares readers for step 9 (Eating with a crowd takes a level of etiquette and preparedness that omnivores rarely have to think about): be prepared for awkward situations. The sentences, “Hosts offering their guests food is a matter of hospitality, and turning down certain foods, especially on ethical grounds, can feel uncomfortable and even rude” and “A smart vegan tells the host of their dietary restrictions in advance, and a thoughtful one asks if they can contribute a vegan dish to the meal. Vegans should communicate openly with their friends and relatives so they will not receive non-vegan gifts or surprise anyone with their food choices,” support and identify possible trouble spot (awkward social situations) and offers practical advice for avoiding pitfalls.

Paragraph 12: To that end, be prepared to answer many questions. Some of them may seem silly (“Is goat cheese vegan?”), but it is necessary to remember that everyone comes from a different background and therefore will have a unique set of values and beliefs. Recognize that food and clothing are political, but they also can be deeply personal or important in different cultural atmospheres. Vegans who remain open to new thoughts and ideas and refrain from passing moral judgment on other peoples’ lifestyle choices have an easier time moving through the world.

The above paragraph 12 shows organization. Transitional phrase, “To that end,” prepares readers for final step (be prepared to answer many questions): be prepared to answer questions about the vegan lifestyle.

Paragraph 13: As the twenty-first century progresses, the political, social, and environmental effects of our day-to-day decisions are becoming more evident. There is no single issue that takes precedence over another, and being vegan is just one way to live consciously in an imperfect world. However, overcoming the doubts and suspicions surrounding veganism is an important first step in challenging norms and recognizing the connections between people, animals, and the earth. Finding veganism achievable makes other positive changes seem achievable, too.

The above paragraph 13 is the conclusion. Transition, “As the twenty-first century progresses,” emphasizes reason to go vegan: it’s an ethical choice for today; emphasizes value of process.

Works Cited

Bratskeir, Kate. “Not All Sugar Is Vegan. Surprise!” HuffPost, 7 Dec. 2017, w w w dot huffpost dot com slash entry slash sugar hyphen vegan hyphen bone hyphen char hyphen yikes underscore n underscore 6391496.

Leonard, Jayne. “The Best Iron-Rich Vegetarian Foods.” Medical News Today , 5 Dec. 2018, w w w dot medical news today dot com slash articles slash 323902 dot p h p.

“The Right Plant-Based Diet for You.” Harvard Health, Jan. 2018, w w w dot health dot Harvard dot edu slash staying hyphen healthy slash the hyphen right hyphen plant hyphen based hyphen diet hyphen for hyphen you.

Shubrook, Nicola. “The Best Vegan Protein Sources.” B B C Good Food, 5 Dec. 2018, w w w dot b b c good food dot com slash how to slash guide slash best hyphen sources hyphen protein hyphen vegan.

Analyzing the Writer’s Technique

1. Introduction How successful are the first two paragraphs at providing a reason for learning the process?

2. Title Evaluate Appel’s choice of title. What are its strengths?

3. Organization Explain how Appel has organized the steps in the process.

4. Conclusion Does Appel’s conclusion bring the essay to a satisfying close? Why or why not?

5. Opinion Appel says that going vegan is an ethical choice. How does she convey her opinion? What reasons does she give?

Thinking Critically about Process Analysis

1. Response How does Appel’s use of phrases such as “gelatin … usually comes from animal bones” (para. 5) and “lecithin … can come from animal tissue” (5) affect you as a reader? Do they increase or decrease the essay’s effectiveness?

2. Tone How would you describe Appel’s tone? What words or ideas help establish the tone?

3. Audience Who is the intended audience for this essay? How do you know? Is the essay appropriate for this audience? Why or why not?

4. Omissions What has Appel omitted from her process analysis, if anything? What additional information or advice might someone who is totally ignorant about the vegan lifestyle need? Would you need any additional information?

Responding to the Essay

1. Reaction Appel made a major change when she chose to adhere to a vegan lifestyle. Do you think you could make the same lifestyle change? Why or why not? What would be the most difficult food for you to give up? How do you think your family and friends would respond to your lifestyle change? What would be your primary reason for making the change?

2. Discussion How important is it to follow the steps in the order Appel presents them? What are some other processes in which following the steps in order is especially important? List two or three.

3. Essay Appel sees the choice of a vegan lifestyle as a positive one. Write an essay explaining a change you have made or would like to make in your life that would change some facet of your life (your health, your sense of accomplishment) for the better. Describe the process that you would have to follow in order to make the change.

READING

The Psychology of Stuff and Things

Christian Jarrett

Dr. Christian Jarrett is a neuroscientist and a senior editor for Aeon magazine. He is the founding editor of the British Psychological Society’s Research Digest blog. He also blogs for both the British Psychological Society and Psychology Today. He has published essays in numerous magazines such as The Times (London), Psychology Today, The Guardian, and Outdoor Fitness. He has also published several books, including This Book Has Issues (2008), The Rough Guide to Psychology (2010), and Great Myths of the Brain (2015). At the end of his essay, Jarrett includes a list of references. Because he is writing in a journal for and by psychologists, he uses the citation style of the American Psychological Association (or APA). Before reading, preview and make connections by thinking about which possessions you are most attached to. While reading, highlight each step in the process. Because the process he describes occurs over a lifetime, underline transitions that signal chronological order or the next step in the process.

JUST-IN-TIME TIP

Testing Your Understanding

This article offers detailed, research-based explanations of how our relationship to our belongings changes over our lifetimes. The headings divide this reading by life stages, and the first sentence under each heading states concisely what happens during that stage. As you read, pay attention to the headings and topic sentences. Then test your understanding and recall by describing in your own words what happens at each stage. If you cannot, then you know you need to reread that section.

See the Just-in-Time Guide (section 5c) following Chapter 3.

A man’s Self is the sum total of all that he can call his.

— William James, The Principles of Psychology (1890)

1Stuff everywhere. Bags, books, clothes, cars, toys, jewelry, furniture, iPads. If we’re relatively affluent, we’ll consider a lot of it ours. More than mere tools, luxuries or junk, our possessions become extensions of the self. We use them to signal to ourselves, and others, who we want to be and where we want to belong. And long after we’re gone, they become our legacy. Some might even say our essence lives on in what once we made or owned.

Childhood and Adolescence

2Our relationship with stuff starts early. The idea that we can own something, possess it as if a part of ourselves, is one that children grasp by the age of two. And by six, they exhibit the “endowment effect,” placing extra value on an object simply by virtue of it being, or having been, theirs. Although children understand ownership from a very young age, they think about it in a more simplistic way than adults. A study by Ori Friedman and Karen Neary in 2008 showed that aged between two and four, kids make the assumption that whoever is first in possession of the object is the owner, regardless of whether they later give it away.

3With ownership comes envy. When youngsters play with friends, they soon discover other people’s toys they’d like to get their hands on. Or they experience the injustice of being forced to share what they had assumed was theirs alone. In his 1932 book The Moral Judgment of the Child, Jean Piaget observed that even babies express jealousy over objects, giving signs of “violent rage” when a toy is taken from them and given to another. When Batya Licht and her colleagues in 2008 filmed 22-month-olds playing with their peers in day-care, nearly a quarter of all sources of conflict were over possessions — where the “child either defended his or her objects from another child, or wanted to take an object from another child.”

4Most children have an unusually intense relationship with a specific “attachment object,” usually a favorite blanket or a soft toy. In an intriguing study by Bruce Hood and Paul Bloom, the majority of three- to six-year-old children preferred to take home their original attachment object, as opposed to a duplicate made by a “copying machine.” To the prospect of taking a copy, “the most common response was horror,” says Nathalia Gjersoe, who helped run the studies. “A few very sweet and obedient children said okay but then burst into tears.” Four of the children even refused for their attachment toy or object to be copied in the first place. That’s despite the fact they were happy enough to take a copy of an experimenter’s toy. It’s as if the children believed their special object had a unique essence, a form of magical thinking that re-appears in adulthood in our treatment of heirlooms, celebrity memorabilia and artwork.

“When youngsters play with friends, … they experience the injustice of being forced to share what they had assumed was theirs alone.”

5As children mature into teens, we see possessions starting to act as a crutch for the self. In 2007, Lan Chaplin and her colleagues interviewed participants aged between eight and 18 and found that “materialism” (identified by choosing material goods in answer to “What makes me happy?”) peaked at middle adolescence, just when self-esteem tended to be lowest. In a follow-up, materialism was reduced in teens who were given flattering feedback from peers to boost their self-esteem.

6Through adolescence, possessions increasingly reflect who people are, or at least how they would like to see themselves. In his seminal paper “Possessions and the Extended Self” Russell Belk quotes from novelist Alison Lurie’s book The Language of Clothes, in which she observes: “… when adolescent girls exchange clothing they share not only friendship, but also identities — they become soulmates.” Similarly, in interviews with teens, Ruthie Segev at Jerusalem College of Technology found evidence that selecting and buying gifts for their friends helps adolescents achieve a sense of identity independent from their parents, and that the mutual exchange of the same or similar gifts between friends helps them to create a feeling of overlapping identities.

7In the transition from adolescence to adulthood, it’s the first car that often becomes the ultimate symbol of a person’s emerging identity. Interviews with car owners conducted by Graham Fraine and colleagues in 2007 found that young drivers, aged 18 to 25, were particularly likely to make the effort to personalize their cars with stickers, unusual number plates and seat covers, as if marking out their territory.

Adulthood

8As our lives unfold, our things embody our sense of self-hood and identity still further, becoming external receptacles for our memories, relationships and travels. “My house is not ’just a thing,’ ” wrote Karen Lollar in 2010. “The house is not merely a possession or a structure of unfeeling walls. It is an extension of my physical body and my sense of self that reflects who I was, am, and want to be.”

9As our belongings accumulate, becoming more infused with our identities, so their preciousness increases. People whose things are destroyed in a disaster are traumatized, almost as if grieving the loss of their identities. Photographs from the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy, which struck the US East coast in 2012, show people standing bereft, staring in shock and bewilderment at all they’ve lost. Reflecting on the fire that took her home, Lollar says it was like “a form of death.” Alexandra Kovach, who also lost her home in a fire, wrote in The Washington Post in 2007: “It isn’t just a house. It’s not the contents, or the walls, but the true feeling of that home — and all that it represents.”

Later Life and Beyond

10Older people don’t just form bonds with their specific belongings, they seem to have an affection for brands from their youth too. Usually this manifests in a taste for music, books, films and other entertainment from yesteryear, but the same has been shown for fashions and hairstyles, it has been hinted at for perfumes, and in a study published in 2003 by Robert Schindler and Morris Holbrook, it was found that it also extends to the car.

“Older people don’t just form bonds with their specific belongings, they seem to have an affection for brands from their youth too.”

"The heading of the advertisement reads, “How Mercury’s new 161-horsepower engine makes any driving easy.” The title is followed by four photos as follows. The first photo shows a young woman getting in the car to occupy the driver’s seat. Accompanying caption reads, “Get in and try it — You’ll find Mercury’s entirely new V-161 engine smoother, quieter. And with new ball-joint suspension, you’ll enjoy greater handling ease.” The second photo shows a Mercury car overtaking another car. Accompanying caption reads, “Passing — Extra power is provided instantly, whenever needed, by unique new 4-barrel carburetor.” The third photo shows a Mercury car climbing hill. Accompanying caption reads, “Hill climbing — V-161 power is eager power. And there’s plenty in reserve to do the job effortlessly.” The fourth photo shows a young woman driving a Mercury car. Accompanying caption reads, “Make driving as easy as you wish with optional 4-way power seat, power steering, power brakes, power windows, Mere-O-Matic Drive.” The fourth photo is followed by the brand logo, along with the brand tagline at the bottom left of the advertisement page. The tagline reads, “THE CAR THAT MAKES ANY DRIVING EASY.” The logo reads, “New 1954, MERCURY, MERCURY DIVISION, FORD MOTOR COMPANY.” Text on the left of the logo reads, “How often have you wished for more ’go’ from the car you now drive—especially when passing or hill climbing? How often have you been annoyed by sluggishness in traffic, stiff handling when parking, or wheel tug on curves? Now—you can solve driving problems like these with Mercury's completely new V-161 engine teamed with new ball-joint front wheel suspension. The combination gives you a new feeling of safety in driving—smoother, easier power, unique in a popular-priced car. Road test a 1954 Mercury.”

11Dozens of participants aged 16 to 92 rated their preference for the appearance of 80 cars, ranging from the 1915 Dodge Model 30-35 to the 1994 Chrysler Concorde. Among men, but not women, there was a clear preference for cars that dated from the participants’ youth (peaking around age 26). This was particularly the case for men who were more nostalgic and who believed that things were better in the old days. What other examples might there be? “Children of both sexes tend to have strong feelings about foods they like as they grow up,” says Schindler. “Although we haven’t studied food, I would expect both men and women to have a lifetime fondness for foods they enjoyed during their youth.”

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12As with human relationships, the attachments to our things deepen with the passage of time. Elderly people are often surrounded by possessions that have followed them through good times and bad, across continents and back. In 2000, Linda Price at the University of Arizona and her colleagues interviewed 80 older people about their decisions regarding these “special possessions.” A common theme was the way cherished objects come to represent particular memories. “I can look at anything [in this house] and remember special occasions,” recalled Diane, aged 70. “It’s almost like a history of our life.”

13After a person dies, many of their most meaningful possessions become family heirlooms, seen by those left behind as forever containing the lost person’s essence. This idea is also seen in the behaviors that follow the death of a celebrity. In a process that Belk calls “sacralization,” possessions owned by a deceased star can acquire astonishing value overnight, both sentimental and monetary. This is often true even for exceedingly mundane items such as President Kennedy’s tape measure, auctioned for $48,875 in 1996. A study by George Newman and colleagues in 2011 provided a clue about the beliefs underlying these effects. They showed that people place more value on celebrity-owned items, the more physical contact the celebrity had with the object, as if their essence somehow contaminated the item through use.

The Future

14Our relationship with our stuff is in the midst of great change. Dusty music and literary collections are being rehoused in the digital cloud. Where once we expressed our identity through fashion preferences and props, today we can cultivate an online identity with a carefully constructed homepage. We no longer have to purchase an item to associate ourselves with it, we can simply tell the world via Twitter or Facebook about our preferences. The self has become extended, almost literally, into technology, with Google acting like a memory prosthetic. In short, our relationship with our things, possessions and brands remains as important as ever, it’s just the nature of the relationship is changing. Researchers and people in general are gradually adjusting. The psychology of our stuff is becoming more interdisciplinary, with new generations building on the established research conducted by consumer psychologists.

15Twenty-five years after he published his seminal work on objects and the “extended self,” Russell Belk has composed an update: “The extended self in a digital world,” currently under review. “The possibilities for self extensions have never been so extensive,” he says.

Bibliography

✵ Belk, R. W. (1988). Possessions and the extended self. Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 139—168.

✵ Belk, R. W. (2013). The extended self in a digital world. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(3), 477—500.

✵ Chaplin, L. N. & John, D. R. (2007). Growing up in a material world: Age differences in materialism in children and adolescents. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(4), 480—493.

✵ Fraine, G., Smith, S. G., Zinkiewicz, L., Chapman, R. & Sheehan, M. (2007). At home on the road? Can drivers’ relationships with their cars be associated with territoriality? Journal of Environmental Psychology, 27(3), 204—214.

✵ Friedman, O. & Neary, K. R. (2008). Determining who owns what: Do children infer ownership from first possession? Cognition, 107(3), 829—849.

✵ Hood, B. M. & Bloom, P. (2008). Children prefer certain individuals over perfect duplicates. Cognition, 106(1), 455—462.

✵ Kovach, A. (2007, 27 October). What fire couldn’t destroy. Washington Post. Retrieved 4 June 2013 from: www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/10/26/AR2007102601774.html

✵ Licht, B., Simoni, H. & Perrig-Chiello, P. (2008). Conflict between peers in infancy and toddler age: What do they fight about? Early Years, 28(3), 235—249.

✵ Lollar, K. (2010). The liminal experience: Loss of extended self after the fire. Qualitative Inquiry, 16(4), 262—270.

✵ Newman, G. E., Diesendruck, G. & Bloom, P. (2011). Celebrity contagion and the value of objects. Journal of Consumer Research, 38(2), 215—228.

✵ Piaget, J. (1965). The moral judgment of the child. New York: The Free Press. (Original work published 1932).

✵ Price, L. L., Arnould, E. J. & Curasi, C. F. (2000). Older consumers’ disposition of special possessions. Journal of Consumer Research, 27(2), 179—201.

✵ Schindler, R. M. & Holbrook, M. B. (2003). Nostalgia for early experience as a determinant of consumer preferences. Psychology and Marketing, 20(4), 275—302.

✵ Segev, R., Shoham, A. & Ruvio, A. (2012). What does this gift say about me, you, and us? The role of adolescents’ gift giving in managing their impressions among their peers. Psychology & Marketing, 29(10), 752—764.

Understanding the Reading

1. Summarizing What are the steps in the process that Jarrett describes?

2. Meaning What does the author mean when he says that “our essence lives on in what once we made or owned” (para. 1)?

3. Details Explain the importance to sports fans of collecting paraphernalia and wearing team colors. To what part of the process does this relate?

4. Vocabulary Explain the meaning of each of the following words as it is used in the reading: essence (para. 1), memorabilia (4), materialism (5), seminal (6), receptacles (8), and prosthetic (14).

Analyzing the Writer’s Technique

1. Thesis Identify Jarrett’s thesis statement. What background information does he provide to support it?

2. Conclusion Does Jarrett’s conclusion bring the essay to a satisfying close? Why or why not?

3. Purpose Explain how Jarrett’s citation of research supports his purpose in writing the essay.

4. Audience Who is Jarrett’s audience? Does his advice apply to others outside this group?

5. Patterns What methods of development, in addition to process, does Jarrett use in this essay? What does each add to your understanding of Jarrett’s explanation of how our possessions become an extension of our selves?

Thinking Critically about Text and Images

1. Tone How would you describe Jarrett’s tone? The essay appears to have been written for students of psychology and other psychologists. How could Jarrett have made the essay easier to read for a more general audience?

2. Conclusion What is Jarrett suggesting about how we will identify with our possessions in the digital age?

3. Visuals What concept does each of the photographs in this reading illustrate?

4. Additional Evidence What additional evidence could Jarrett have included to make his claim about our relationship with our possessions more convincing?

Responding to the Reading

1. Discussion Do you believe that your essence lives on in what you once made or owned? Why or why not? What do you believe your possessions say about you?

2. Journal How does this essay make you feel about the possessions you have accumulated? Will it make any difference in what you do with your accumulated possessions in the future?

3. Essay Jarrett says that “most children have an unusually intense relationship with a specific ’attachment object,’ usually a favorite blanket or soft toy.” Reflect on your childhood and try to remember what your favorite toy or “attachment object” was. Write an essay in which you describe this object, explain how your attachment to it developed, and include a story or two about it.

Working Together

If Christian Jarrett were to design a bumper sticker based on the information in this essay, what would it say? In small groups, devise a brief motto that captures the essence of this essay.

EXPLORE, RESEARCH, WRITE

In “The Psychology of Stuff and Things,” Christian Jarrett describes how people come to view their possessions as “extensions of the self.” Other researchers have also studied this phenomenon. Reports about such research include the following:

✵ “A History of Humans Loving Inanimate Objects” by Paul Hibert (Pacific Standard, 14 June 2017)

✵ “Why Children Become So Attached to Toys and Comfort Blankets” by Steven Morris (The Guardian, 9 March 2007)

✵ “More Than Just Teddy Bears” by Colleen Goddard (Psychology Today, 15 July 2014)

Using your own ideas and information or ideas from one or more of the selections listed here, write a thoughtful process analysis essay that goes beyond what “The Psychology of Stuff and Things” tells us about the childhood stage of “stuff” possession (paras. 2—4) to explain how this stage develops. Be sure to incorporate at least one quotation from a reading and cite it correctly at the end of the essay.

The Guided Writing Assignment in this chapter can walk you through the process of writing a process analysis essay; for help with evaluating sources, see Chapter 21; for help choosing and synthesizing ideas from sources, see Chapter 22; for help with documenting sources, see Chapter 23.

READING

How to Spot Fake News

Eugene Kiely and Lori Robertson

Eugene Kiely is a journalist who reports on government and politics and is also the director of FactCheck.org, an organization dedicated to monitoring political news for accuracy. He was formerly an editor at USA Today and the state editor for The Philadelphia Inquirer. Lori Robertson is the managing editor at FactCheck.org; previously, she was an editor and writer for American Journalism Review, a media watchdog publication. Before reading, preview and make connections by thinking about the fake news that you have encountered on traditional news or social media sites. While reading, identify patterns other than process analysis that are used in this essay.

JUST-IN-TIME TIP

Using Summary Statements

Summary statements, often using key words and phrases from the reading, can help you keep track of steps in a process and what each step involves. This technique is especially useful when reading a process analysis essay full of detailed examples. Highlight these key words as you read, or create a chart listing each step and the key words and phrases that summarize it. The start of a summary chart for “How to Spot Fake News” is shown below.

1Fake news is nothing new. But bogus stories can reach more people more quickly via social media than what good old-fashioned viral emails could accomplish in years past. Concern about the phenomenon led Facebook and Google to announce that they will crack down on fake news sites, restricting their ability to garner ad revenue (Wingfield et al.). Perhaps that could dissipate the amount of malarkey online, though news consumers themselves are the best defense against the spread of misinformation.

2Not all of the misinformation being passed along online is complete fiction, though some of it is. Snopes.com has been exposing false viral claims since the mid-1990s, whether that is fabricated messages, distortions containing bits of truth and everything in between. Founder David Mikkelson warned in a November 17 article not to lump everything into the “fake news” category. “The fictions and fabrications that comprise fake news are but a subset of the larger bad news phenomenon, which also encompasses many forms of shoddy, unresearched, error-filled, and deliberately misleading reporting that do a disservice to everyone,” he wrote. A lot of these viral claims are not “news” at all, but fiction, satire and efforts to fool readers into thinking they are for real.

3We have long encouraged readers to be skeptical of viral claims, and make good use of the delete key when a chain email hits their inboxes. In December 2007, we launched our Ask FactCheck feature, where we answer readers’ questions, the vast majority of which concern viral emails, social media memes and the like. Our first story was about a made-up email that claimed then-House Speaker Nancy Pelosi wanted to put a “windfall” tax on all stock profits of 100 percent and give the money to, the email claimed, “the 12 Million Illegal Immigrants and other unemployed minorities.” We called it “a malicious fabrication”—that is “fake news” in today’s parlance.

4In 2008, we tried to get readers to rid their inboxes of this kind of garbage. We described a list of red flags — we called them Key Characteristics of Bogusness — that were clear tip-offs that a chain email wasn’t legitimate. Among them are an anonymous author; excessive exclamation points, capital letters and misspellings; entreaties that “This is NOT a hoax!”; and links to sourcing that does not support or completely contradicts the claims being made.

5Those all still hold true, but fake stories — as in, completely made-up “news” — has grown more sophisticated, often presented on a site designed to look (sort of) like a legitimate news organization. Still, we find it is easy to figure out what is real and what is imaginary if you are armed with some critical thinking and fact-checking tools of the trade. Here is our advice on how to spot a fake.

6Consider the source. In recent months, we have fact-checked fake news from abcnews.com.co (not the actual URL for ABC News), WTOE 5 News (whose “about” page says it is “a fantasy news website”), and the Boston Tribune (whose “contact us” page lists only a gmail address). Earlier this year, we debunked the claim that the Obamas were buying a vacation home in Dubai, a made-up missive that came from WhatDoesItMean.com, which describes itself as “One of the Top Ranked Websites in the World for New World Order, Conspiracy Theories and Alternative News” and further says on its site that most of what it publishes is fiction.

7Clearly, some of these sites do provide a “fantasy news” or satire warning, like WTOE 5, which published the bogus headline, “Pope Francis Shocks World, Endorses Donald Trump for President, Releases Statement.” Others are not so upfront, like the Boston Tribune, which does not provide any information on its mission, staff members or physical location — further signs that maybe this site is not a legitimate news organization. The site, in fact, changed its name from Associated Media Coverage, after its work had been debunked by fact-checking organizations (Cave). Snopes.com, which has been writing about viral claims and online rumors since the mid-1990s, maintains a list of known fake news websites, several of which have emerged in the past two years.

8Read beyond the headline. If a provocative headline drew your attention, read a little further before you decide to pass along the shocking information. Even in legitimate news stories, the headline does not always tell the whole story. But fake news, particularly efforts to be satirical, can include several revealing signs in the text. That abcnews.com.co story that we checked, headlined “Obama Signs Executive Order Banning The Pledge of Allegiance in Schools Nationwide,” went on to quote “Fappy the Anti-Masturbation Dolphin.” We have to assume that the many readers who asked us whether this viral rumor was true had not read the full story.

9Check the author. Another tell-tale sign of a fake story is often the byline. The pledge of allegiance story on abcnews.com.co was supposedly written by “Jimmy Rustling.” Who is he? Well, his author page claims he is a “doctor” who won “fourteen Peabody awards and a handful of Pulitzer Prizes.” That is pretty impressive, if true, but it is not. No one by the name of “Rustling” has won a Pulitzer or Peabody award. The photo accompanying Rustling’s bio is also displayed on another bogus story on a different site, but this time under the byline “Darius Rubics.” The Dubai story was written by “Sorcha Faal, and as reported to her Western Subscribers.” The Pope Francis story has no byline at all.

10Examine the support. Many times these bogus stories will cite official — or official-sounding — sources, but once you look into it, the source does not back up the claim. For instance, the Boston Tribune site wrongly claimed that President Obama’s mother-in-law was going to get a lifetime government pension for having babysat her granddaughters in the White House, citing “the Civil Service Retirement Act” and providing a link, but the link to a government benefits website does not support the claim at all.

11The banning-the-pledge story cites the number of an actual executive order — you can look it up. It does not have anything to do with the Pledge of Allegiance. Another viral claim we checked a year ago was a graphic purporting to show crime statistics on the percentage of whites killed by blacks and other murder statistics by race. Then-presidential candidate Donald Trump retweeted it, telling Fox News commentator Bill O’Reilly that it came “from sources that are very credible.” But almost every figure in the image was wrong — FBI crime data is publicly available — and the supposed source given for the data, “Crime Statistics Bureau — San Francisco,” doesn’t exist.

12Recently, we have received several questions about a fake news story on the admittedly satirical site Nevada County Scooper, which wrote that Vice President-elect Mike Pence, in a “surprise announcement,” credited gay conversion therapy for saving his marriage. Clearly such a “surprise announcement” would garner media coverage beyond a website you are never heard of. In fact, if you Google this, the first link that comes up is a Snopes.com article revealing that this is fake news.

13Check the date. Some false stories are not completely fake, but rather distortions of real events. These mendacious claims can take a legitimate news story and twist what it says — or even claim that something that happened long ago is related to current events. Since Trump was elected president, we have received many inquiries from readers wanting to know whether Ford had moved car production from Mexico to Ohio, because of Trump’s election. Readers cited various blog items that quoted from and linked to a CNN Money article titled “Ford shifts truck production from Mexico to Ohio.” But that story is from August 2015, clearly not evidence of Ford making any move due to the outcome of the election. (A reminder again to check the support for these claims.)

14One deceptive website did not credit CNN, but instead took CNN’s 2015 story and slapped a new headline and publication date on it, claiming, “Since Donald Trump Won The Presidency … Ford Shifts Truck Production From Mexico To Ohio.” Not only is that a bogus headline, but the deception involves copyright infringement.

15If this Ford story sounds familiar, that is because the CNN article has been distorted before. In October 2015, Trump wrongly boasted that Ford had changed its plans to build new plants in Mexico, and instead would build a plant in Ohio. Trump took credit for Ford’s alleged change of heart and tweeted a link to a story on a blog called Prntly.com, which cited the CNN Money story, but Ford had not changed its plans at all, and Trump deserved no credit.

16In fact, the CNN article was about the transfer of some pickup assembly work from Mexico to Ohio, a move that was announced by Ford in March 2014. The plans for new plants in Mexico were still on, Ford said. “Ford has not spoken with Mr. Trump, nor have we made any changes to our plans,” Ford said in a statement.

17Determine if it is a joke. Remember, there is such thing as satire. Normally, it is clearly labeled as such, and sometimes it is even funny. Andy Borowitz has been writing a satirical news column, the Borowitz Report, since 2001, and it has appeared in the New Yorker since 2012, but not everyone gets the jokes. We have fielded several questions on whether Borowitz’s work is true. Among the headlines our readers have flagged: “Putin Appears with Trump in Flurry of Swing-State Rallies” and “Trump Threatens to Skip Remaining Debates If Hillary Is There.” When we told readers these were satirical columns, some indicated that they suspected the details were far-fetched but wanted to be sure.

18And then there are the more debatable forms of satire, designed to pull one over on the reader. That “Fappy the Anti-Masturbation Dolphin” story is the work of online hoaxer Paul Horner, whose “greatest coup,” as described by the Washington Post in 2014 (Dewey “This”), was when Fox News mentioned, as fact, a fake piece titled, “Obama uses own money to open Muslim museum amid government shutdown.” Horner told the Post after the election that he was concerned his hoaxes aimed at Trump supporters may have helped the campaign (Dewey “Facebook”).

19The posts by Horner and others — whether termed satire or simply “fake news” — are designed to encourage clicks and generate money for the creator through ad revenue. Horner told the Washington Post he makes a living off his posts. Asked why his material gets so many views, Horner responded, “They just keep passing stuff around. Nobody fact-checks anything anymore.”

20Check your biases. We know this is difficult. Confirmation bias leads people to put more stock in information that confirms their beliefs and discount information that does not. But the next time you are automatically appalled at some Facebook post concerning, say, a politician you oppose, take a moment to check it out.

21Try this simple test: What other stories have been posted to the “news” website that is the source of the story that just popped up in your Facebook feed? You may be predisposed to believe that Obama bought a house in Dubai, but how about a story on the same site that carries this headline: “Antarctica ’Guardians’ Retaliate Against America With Massive New Zealand Earthquake.” That, too, was written by the prolific “Sorcha Faal, and as reported to her Western Subscribers.”

22We are encouraged by some of the responses we get from readers, who — like the ones uncertain of Borowitz’s columns — express doubt in the outrageous and just want to be sure their skepticism is justified. We are equally discouraged when we see debunked claims gain new life.

23We have seen the resurgence of a fake quote from Donald Trump since the election — a viral image that circulated last year claims Trump told People magazine in 1998: “If I were to run, I’d run as a Republican. They’re the dumbest group of voters in the country. They believe anything on Fox News. I could lie and they’d still eat it up. I bet my numbers would be terrific.” We found no such quote in People’s archives from 1998, or any other year. A public relations representative for the magazine confirmed that. People’s Julie Farin told us in an email last year, “We combed through every Trump story in our archive. We couldn’t find anything remotely like this quote — and no interview at all in 1998.” Comedian Amy Schumer may have contributed to the revival of this fake meme. She put it on Instagram, adding at the end of a lengthy message, “Yes this quote is fake but it doesn’t matter.”

24Consult the experts. We know you are busy, and some of this debunking takes time, but we get paid to do this kind of work. Between FactCheck.org, Snopes.com, the Washington Post Fact Checker and PolitiFact.com, it is likely at least one has already fact-checked the latest viral claim to pop up in your news feed.

25FactCheck.org was among a network of independent fact-checkers who signed an open letter to Facebook’s Mark Zuckerberg suggesting that Facebook “start an open conversation on the principles that could underpin a more accurate news ecosystem on its News Feed.” We hope that conversation happens, but news readers themselves remain the first line of defense against fake news (“Open Letter”).

Links

✵ Cave, Anthony. “Popular Internet Story Claims Arizona, Missouri, and Texas Enacted Two-Pet Limit.” Politifact, Arizona Edition blog, 13 Mar. 2016, 2:04 p.m., www.politifact.com/arizona/statements/2016/may/13/blog-posting/popular-internet-story-claims-arizona-missouri-and.

✵ Dewey, Caitlin. “Facebook Fake-News Writer: ’I Think Donald Trump Is in the White House Because of Me.’” The Washington Post, 17 Nov. 2016, www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2016/11/17/facebook-fake-news-writer-i-think-donald-trump-is-in-the-white-house-because-of-me/?noredirect=on.

✵ Dewey, Caitlin. “This Is Not an Interview with Banksy.” The Washington Post, 22 Oct. 2014, www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2014/10/21/this-is-not-an-interview-with-banksy/?noredirect=on.

✵ Mikkelson, David. “We Have a Bad News Problem, Not a Fake New Problem.” Snopes, 17 Nov. 2016, www.snopes.com/news/2016/11/17/we-have-a-bad-news-problem-not-a-fake-news-problem.

✵ “Open Letter to Mark Zuckerberg from the World’s Fact Checkers.” Poynter, 17 Nov. 2016, www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2016/an-open-letter-to-mark-zuckerberg-from-the-worlds-fact-checkers.

✵ “Pope Francis Shocks World, Endorses Donald Trump for President, Releases Statement.” WTOE 5 News, web.archive.org/web/20161115024211/http:/wtoe5news.com/us-election/pope-francis-shocks-world-endorses-donald-trump-for-president-releases-statement.

✵ Wingfield, Nick, et al. “Google and Facebook Take Aim at Fake News Sites.” The New York Times, 14 Nov. 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/11/15/technology/google-will-ban-websites-that-host-fake-news-from-using-its-ad-service.html.

Understanding the Reading

1. Detail What are the “Key Characteristics of Bogusness” (para. 4)?

2. Thesis What is the reading’s thesis. Is it implied or stated?

3. Summarizing According to Kiely and Robertson, why should people read more than a provocative headline to verify the accuracy of a piece of news (para. 8)?

4. Vocabulary Explain the meaning of each of the following words as it is used in the reading: dissipate (para. 1), malicious (3), missive (6), provocative (8), and mendacious (13).

Analyzing the Writer’s Technique

1. Organization How do Kiely and Robertson order the steps in their process analysis? Is their organization effective? Why or why not?

2. Level of Detail Is there enough detail for the selection to be of practical use?

3. Audience Who is the intended audience of this essay? Does the authors’ advice apply to others outside this group?

4. Patterns What method of development, in addition to process, do the authors use extensively in the essay?

Thinking Critically about Process Analysis

1. Tone How would you describe Kiely and Robertson’s tone? Use examples from the text to support your answer.

2. Assumptions What assumptions do the authors make about their readers?

3. Purpose Why do you think the authors wrote this essay?

4. Credibility Are Kiely and Robertson qualified to offer advice on how to spot fake news? Why or why not?

Responding to the Reading

1. Discussion Brainstorm and discuss possible motives people have for creating fake news other than for profit.

2. Journal The authors use words like defense, malicious, distortion, and deception when referring to fake news. All of these words connote danger. Do you think that fake news is a dangerous trend? Write a journal entry in which you address the question and explain your answer.

3. Essay Kiely and Robertson present “fact-checking tools of the trade” and describe how people can use them to verify the accuracy of news they read. Using one of the fake news articles below, write an essay in which you apply the steps the authors suggest to the reading:

o “Colorado Pot Shop Accepting Food Stamps — Taxpayer-Funded Marijuana for Welfare Recipients” (National Report, web.archive.org/web/20170228020952/http:// nationalreport.net/colorado-pot-shop-accept-food-stamps-taxpayer-funded-marijuana/)

o “Pope Francis Shocks World, Endorses Donald Trump for President, Releases Statement” (WTOE 5 News, web.archive.org/web/20161115024211/http://wtoe5news.com/us-election/pope-francis-shocks-world-endorses-donald-trump-for-president-releases-statement/)

Working Together

Working with a group of your peers, create a public service announcement (PSA) that raises awareness of the pervasiveness of fake news. Assume that the announcement will appear on Facebook as text, but you may include a visual with your announcement if doing so enhances your message. Be prepared to share your group’s PSA with the class and explain its relevance.

EXPLORE, RESEARCH, WRITE

In “How to Spot Fake News,” Eugene Kiely and Lori Robertson describe how people can use “fact-checking tools of the trade” to “figure out what is real and what is imaginary.” Other researchers have also studied the phenomenon of fake news that is now “reaching more people more quickly via social media.” Facebook is one of the social media sites that has contributed to the spread of fake news. Some reports about Facebook and its efforts to combat fake news include the following:

✵ “How Facebook Plans to Crack Down on Fake News” by Ashley May (USA Today, 19 November 2016)

✵ “Working to Stop Misinformation and False News” by Adam Mosseri (Facebook for Media, 7 April 2017)

✵ “Facebook Is Changing News Feed (Again) to Stop Fake News” by Emily Dreyfuss and Issie Lapowsky (Wired, 18 April 2019)

Using your own ideas and one or more of the selections listed here, write a thoughtful process analysis essay that goes beyond what “How to Spot Fake News” tells us about the steps Facebook is taking or should take to address the spread of fake news. Be sure to incorporate at least one quotation from a reading and cite it correctly at the end of the essay.

The Guided Writing Assignment in this chapter can walk you through the process of writing a process analysis essay; for help with evaluating sources, see Chapter 21; for help choosing and synthesizing ideas from sources, see Chapter 22; for help with documenting sources, see Chapter 23.

Apply Your Skills: Additional Essay Assignments

Write a process analysis essay on one of the following topics. Depending on the topic you choose, you may need to conduct research.

For more on locating and documenting sources, see Part 5.

To Express Your Ideas

1. How children manage their parents

2. How to relax and do nothing

3. How to find enough time for your children or girlfriend/boyfriend/spouse

To Inform Your Reader

4. How to avoid or speed up red-tape procedures

5. How a particular type of sports equipment protects an athlete

6. How to remain calm while giving a speech

To Persuade Your Reader

7. How important it is to vote in a presidential election

8. How important it is to select the right courses in order to graduate on time

9. How important it is to exercise every day

Cases Using Process Analysis

10. In your communication course, you are studying how friendships develop and the strategies that people use to meet others. Write an essay describing the strategies people use to make new friends.

11. You are employed by a toy manufacturer and have been asked to write a brochure that encourages children to use toys safely. Prepare a brochure that describes at least three steps children can follow to avoid injury.

SYNTHESIZING IDEAS

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

Both “How Not to Say the Wrong Thing” and “Going Vegan: How to Have Your Eggless Cake and Eat It, Too!” discuss, in part, how to deal with others. “Going Vegan” discusses how to handle potentially difficult family meals, and “How Not to Say the Wrong Thing” focuses on how to interact with others who are going through a difficult time.

Analyzing the Readings

1. Evaluate the level of detail in each essay. Which essay is more helpful?

2. Write a journal entry in which you discuss ways in which you or someone close to you could use the information from each of the essays to communicate with friends and family more effectively.

Essay Idea

Think of other situations in which interpersonal communication is important. Write a process essay explaining the steps in creating a positive interaction. For example, you might write about how to communicate with an instructor, the parents of your boyfriend or girlfriend, or an elderly neighbor or relative.