Successful college writing, Eighth edition - Kathleen T. McWhorter 2020

Classification and division
Patterns of development

Explaining Categories and Parts

In this chapter you will learn to

✵ understand the purpose and function of classification and division essays

✵ use graphic organizers to visualize classification and division essays

✵ integrate division and classification into an essay

✵ read and think critically about division and classification

✵ plan, organize, draft, revise, and edit essays using division and classification

Writing Quick Start

ANALYZE

The photograph on this page shows fruits and vegetables on display at a farmers’ market. Notice that they are arranged by produce type. Can you imagine how difficult it would be to find what you need if all produce were randomly piled onto a table or shelf, with broccoli, pears, peppers, and bananas all mixed together? Most stores and markets group their products for the convenience of their customers.

WRITE

Take a few minutes to brainstorm other ways a favorite store or Web site could group its products for customer convenience. You may propose a serious method or a humorous one. Then draft a paragraph describing your system. List the characteristics of each product group, describe the products that belong in each group, and give each group a title.

CONNECT

To draft your paragraph, you chose a particular store or Web site and then decided upon categories or groups by which to organize the products, describing each group. Your paragraph is a good example of classification, a method of organization that sorts or groups people, things, or ideas into categories to make them more understandable. In this chapter, you will also learn about division, which breaks an item down into its component parts. Both these methods of organization will be useful as you write effective paragraphs and essays.

Classification is used in daily life as well as in writing. Your dresser drawers are probably organized by categories, with socks and sweaters in different drawers. Supermarkets, shopping Web sites, libraries, and even restaurant menus arrange items into groups according to similar characteristics. The same holds true for division. The humanities department at your college, for example, may be divided into English, modern languages, and philosophy; and modern languages might be divided into Spanish, French, Italian, Chinese, and Russian.

USING CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION

IN COLLEGE AND THE WORKPLACE

✵ In a human physiology course, you study the structure and parts of the human ear by identifying the function of each part.

✵ In preparing a business management report, you consider how debt liability differs for three types of businesses: a sole proprietorship, a partnership, and a corporation.

✵ While working as a facilities planner, your supervisor asks you to conduct a feasibility study of several new sites. You begin by sorting the sites into three categories: in-state, out-of-state, and international.

What Are the Characteristics of Classification and Division Essays?

A successful classification or division essay uses one principle of classification or division to create meaningful categories or parts that are broad enough to include all of the members of the group.

Classification Groups and Division Divides Ideas According to One Principle

Developing an effective set of categories or parts requires you to do two things:

✵ Choose one principle of classification or division and use it. An essay classifying fish could choose size or diet as a classification principle, not both. An essay about an aquarium could divide the topic according to either the type of fish displayed or the quality of the exhibits.

✵ Identify a manageable number of categories or parts. An essay classifying birds according to diet, for example, might use five or six types of diet, not twenty.

EXERCISE 16.1

IDENTIFYING PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION OR DIVISION

Brainstorm three different principles of classification or division for each of the following topics:

1. Sports teams

2. Fast-food restaurants

3. Television shows

4. Academic subjects

5. Novels

Purpose and Audience Drive the Writer’s Choice of a Principle

Several different principles can be used to categorize groups or divide an item into parts, so writers should choose a principle of classification or division that is appropriate to their purpose and audience. For instance, to inform parents about the types of day-care facilities on or near campus, you might classify day-care centers according to the services they offer because your readers would likely be looking for that information. If you were writing to persuade readers to take their children to a new museum, you might divide the exhibits according to their suitability for children of different ages.

Categories and Parts Are Exclusive and Comprehensive

Choose categories (for classification) or parts (for division) that do not overlap. In other words, each item that you discuss should fit in no more than one category. A familiar example is age: The categories 25 to 30 and 30 to 35 are not mutually exclusive because someone who is 30 years old would fit into both. In an essay about the nutritional value of pizza, you could divide your topic into the nutritional attributes of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, but you should not add a separate category for saturated fat because it is already contained in the fats category.

The categories or parts you choose should also be comprehensive. In a division essay, all the major parts of an item should be included. In a classification essay, each member of the group should fit into one category or another. For example, an essay categorizing fast-food restaurants according to the type of food they serve would have to include categories for pizza, hamburgers, hot dogs, tacos, and fried chicken.

EXERCISE 16.2

CLASSIFYING AND DIVIDING BY CATEGORY

Choose a principle of classification or division for two of the topics listed in Exercise 16.1. Then make a list of categories in which each item could be included or parts into which each item could be divided.

Classification or Division Fully Explains Each Category or Part

A classification or division essay should contain enough detail for readers to understand each category or part easily. Use facts, descriptions, quotations, comparisons, or examples to help readers “see” your categories or parts.

Classification or Division Includes a Thesis

The thesis statement of a classification or division essay should identify the topic. It may also reveal the principle used to classify or divide the topic. In most cases it also should suggest why the classification or division is relevant or important.

Here are two examples of effective thesis statements:

Importance (implied)

Topic

Principle

Categories

Most people consider videos a form of entertainment; however, videos can also serve educational, commercial, and political functions.

The Grand Canyon is divided into two distinct geographical areas— the North Rim and the South Rim — each offering different views, activities, and climatic conditions.

The following readings demonstrate the techniques for writing effective classification or division essays discussed above. The first reading is annotated to point out how Johanna Blakley classifies TV shows in terms of their appeal to liberals, conservatives, and those in the middle. As you read the second essay, try to identify for yourself how Michael Moss uses the techniques of division to show what makes potato chips nearly irresistible.

CLASSIFICATION READING

Reds, Blues, and Purples: Which Five TV Shows Bring Them All Together?

Title: Indicates categories and topic

Johanna Blakley

Johanna Blakley is the director of research and managing director of the Norman Lear Center, a nonpartisan research center based in Los Angeles and housed within the Annenberg School for Journalism and Communication at the University of Southern California. Blakley conducts research on a wide range of topics, including global entertainment and entertainment education. She is an expert in the media habits of liberals and conservatives. This selection was published by The Conversation (2019), a Web site that gives academics and researchers from a wide array of disciplines a platform for sharing their knowledge with a wider public.

Before Reading

1. Preview: Use the steps listed in Chapter 2.

2. Connect: How do the television programs you watch compare to those of your friends and relatives? What do you think influences viewing preferences?

While Reading

Study the annotations and highlight the facts, descriptions, and examples that are especially effective in helping you understand how the author classifies the viewers by type.

Relevance: Mentions public’s concern about fracturing of nation’s political life

1There has been a lot of concern about how conservatives and liberals consume their news from sources that merely confirm their preexisting beliefs (Garrett). The result, supposedly, has been a disintegration of a shared reality and a fracturing of the nation’s political life. But does this trend extend to the shows we choose to watch on TV to relax and unwind?

Introduction: Identifies topic, principle of classification, and purpose (to inform readers about research results)

Thesis

2Since 2007, the Norman Lear Center at the University of Southern California has been tracking how Americans’ favorite TV shows are connected to their attitudes on a host of hot-button political issues (Baker and Blakley). In each of these studies—including our most recent one (Blakley et al.)—we found that people with different political beliefs seem to be drawn to different types of TV entertainment, but in the most recent study, there was also a distinct overlap: certain shows that appealed to everyone across the political spectrum. These programs, we found, tend to have a quality that, at the very least, hints at some shared values in a polarizing age.

Preferences of “Blues,” “Purples” and “Reds”

Organization: Names categories

Organization: Categories delineated in numbered list

Support: Uses description, implied contrast (“most women … largest number of African Americans”), and statistics to delineate Category 1

Support: Uses description, implied contrast (“largest share of Asians and Hispanic … the most religious and satisfied”) and statistics to delineate Category 2

3For the study, we surveyed more than 3,000 people using a national sample designed to represent the U.S. population. Respondents were asked about their entertainment preferences, viewing behaviors and their feelings about specific television shows. They were also asked about their happiness, political beliefs, voting history and personal traits. Using a statistical clustering analysis, we identified three ideological groups in the United States that share common attitudes and values, regardless of voting history or political party preferences:

Support: Uses description, implied contrast (“highest proportion of senior citizens”) and statistics to delineate Category 3

Support: Uses examples of Blues’ viewing habits to categorize

1. Blues, who have liberal attitudes toward abortion, the environment, guns, marriage and immigration, make up 47% of the population. This group has the most women and the largest number of African Americans. They are also the least satisfied with their lives.

2. Purples, a swing group comprising 18% of the population, hold positions across the political spectrum. This group has the largest share of Asians and Hispanics, and those in it are the most religious and the most satisfied with their lives.

3. Reds make up 35% of the country and hold conservative views on most issues. They are sympathetic toward the police and skeptical about affirmative action, immigrants and Islam. Reds have the highest proportion of senior citizens.

Each group demonstrated its own particular taste in media and entertainment.

4Blues like many more TV shows than Reds and are open to viewing foreign films and TV series, as well as content that does not reflect their values. Many Blues enjoy watching “Modern Family,” “The Big Bang Theory,” “The Simpsons,” “South Park” and “Law & Order: SVU.”

5Purples are the most voracious TV viewers and enjoy more about the viewing experience than other groups. They appreciate the educational value of TV programming and are the most likely to say they take action based on what they learn about politics and social issues from fictional movies and TV shows. Their favorite shows include “The Voice” and “Dancing with the Stars,” but they also like “Saturday Night Live”—a favorite among Blues as well—and “Duck Dynasty,” which is preferred by Reds.

Support: Uses examples of Purples’ viewing habits to categorize, including overlap of preferred shows with Blues and Reds

6Reds say they seldom watch entertainment TV, but when they do, many claim they watch for an adrenaline boost. They prefer the Hallmark, History and Ion channels far more than others, while their favorite show is “NCIS.”

Support: Uses examples of Reds’ viewing habits to categorize

The Shows That Bring Everyone Together

Support: Names shows that demonstrate overlap among groups

7And yet there was some significant overlap. Five shows that all three ideological groups watched include “America’s Funniest Home Videos,” “Bones,” “Criminal Minds,” “MythBusters” and “Pawn Stars.” Four of these shows were well-liked, but “Pawn Stars” was actually one of the least-liked shows in our sample of 50. (We concluded that “Pawn Stars” had the dubious distinction of being the most hate-watched show in America.)

Support: Analyzes common favorites to identify shared value: the appeal of truth

8But what about those four shows that everyone seems to like? What common elements might they share? My suspicion, one that we will explore in the next iteration of this study, is that all four of these shows—and even “Pawn Stars,” to an extent—value truth. “Bones” and “Criminal Minds” are classic police procedurals: whodunits that follow a string of clues to arrive at a fact-based conclusion. “MythBusters” is entirely about the delights of scientific skepticism and the quest for truth. And I would argue that the clips seen on “America’s Funniest Home Videos” remain appealing after all these years precisely because they are so raw and unscripted; we all delight in real human foibles, the stuff that we think we could not make up if we tried. Even in “Pawn Stars,” customers discover the true market value of their treasured items.

Conclusion: Reinforces thesis and offers a light-hearted perspective on TV shows all Americans enjoy

9In a cultural moment defined by moral panic around fake news and alternative facts (Carlson), perhaps it should not come as a surprise that the neutral ground Americans of all political stripes have chosen is storytelling devoted to finding the bad guy, debunking the myth and exposing how silly humans can really be.

Links

✵ Baker, Tessa, and Johanna Blakley. “You Are What You Watch (and Listen To, and Read): How Americans’ Entertainment Habits Track Their Political Values.” The Norman Lear Center and Zogby International, April 2008.

✵ Blakley, Johanna, et al. “Are You What You Watch? Tracking the Political Divide through TV Preferences.” Media Impact Project, USC Lear Center, May 2019, learcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/are_you_what_you_watch.pdf.

✵ Carlson, Matt. “Fake News as an Informational Moral Panic: The Symbolic Deviancy of Social Media during the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election.” Information, Communication, and Society, vol. 21, no. 1 (2018), doi: 10.1080/1369118X.2018.1505934.

✵ Garrett, R. Kelly. “Facebook’s Problem Is More Complicated Than Fake News.” The Conversation, 16 Nov. 2016, theconversation.com/facebooks-problem-is-more-complicated-than-fake-news-68886.

Visualize a Classification or Division Essay: Create a Graphic Organizer

Graphic Organizer 16.1 outlines the basic organization of a classification or division essay:

✵ The introduction announces the topic, gives background information, and states the thesis.

✵ The body paragraphs explain the categories or parts and their characteristics.

✵ The conclusion brings the essay to a satisfying close by reinforcing the thesis and offering a new insight on the topic.

For more on creating a graphic organizer, see Chapter 2.

GRAPHIC ORGANIZER 16.1 The Basic Structure of a Classification or Division Essay

The items from the left side of the process chart are numbered here for clarity. Items bulleted here are connected to associated numbered items by lines. Downward arrows connect the bulleted items. 1. Title 2. Introduction (Bullet) Topic announcement (Bullet) Background information (Bullet) Thesis statement 3. Body: Categories or Parts 3 a. Category 1 or Part 1 (Bullet) Characteristic (Bullet) Characteristic (Bullet) Characteristic 3 b. Category 2 or Part 2 (Bullet) Characteristic (Bullet) Characteristic (Bullet) Characteristic 3 c. Category 3 or Part 3 (Bullet) Characteristic (Bullet) Characteristic (Bullet) Characteristic 3 d. Category 4 or Part 4 (Bullet) Characteristic (Bullet) Characteristic (Bullet) Characteristic 4. Conclusion (Bullet) Reinforce thesis. Offer new insight or perspective.

READING DIVISION

The Language of Junk Food Addiction: How to “Read” a Potato Chip

Michael Moss

Michael Moss is a Pulitzer Prize—winning investigative reporter for the New York Times, where he has worked since 2000. Before coming to the Times, he reported for publications including the Daily Sentinel (in Grand Junction, Colorado), the Atlanta Journal-Constitution, New York Newsday, and the Wall Street Journal. He has also published two books, Palace Coup: The Inside Story of Harry and Leona Helmsley (1989) and Salt Sugar Fat: How the Food Giants Hooked Us (2013). The interview from which this selection was taken was based on Moss’s work for Salt Sugar Fat. Before reading, preview the selection and make connections by thinking about what you already know about junk food addiction. While reading, notice the parts the author divides the topic into and what his principle of division is. Then compare your notes with Graphic Organizer 16.2.

1Betcha can’t eat just one.

2These five words captured the essence of the potato chip far better than anyone at Frito-Lay could have imagined. In the ’60s, the sentiment might have seemed cute and innocent — it’s hard not to pig out on potato chips, they’re tasty, they’re fun. But today the familiar phrase has a sinister connotation because of our growing vulnerability to convenience foods and our growing dependence on them.

3As I researched Salt, Sugar, Fat, I was surprised to learn about the meticulously crafted allure of potato chips (which I happen to love). When you start to deconstruct the layers of the chip’s appeal, you start to see why this simple little snack has the power to make a profound claim on our attention and appetite. “Betcha can’t eat just one” starts sounding less like a lighthearted dare — and more like a kind of promise. The food industry really is betting on its ability to override the natural checks that keep us from overeating.

4Here’s how it works.

5It starts with salt, which sits right on the outside of the chip. Salt is the first thing that hits your saliva, and it’s the first factor that drives you to eat and perhaps overeat. Your saliva carries the salty taste through the neurological channel to the pleasure center of the brain, where it sends signals back: “Hey, this is really great stuff. Keep eating.”

6The industry calls this salty allure a food’s “flavor burst,” and I was surprised to learn just how many variations on this effect there are. The industry creates different varieties of salt for different kinds of processed foods: everything from fine powders that blend easily into canned soups, to big chunky pyramid-shaped granules with flat sides that stick better to food (hollowed out on the inside for maximum contact with the saliva).

7Then, of course, there’s fat. Potato chips are soaked in fat. And fat is fascinating because it’s not one of the five basic tastes that Aristotle identified way back when — it’s a feeling. Fat is the warm, gooey sensation you get when you bite into a toasty cheese sandwich — or you get just thinking about such a sandwich (if you love cheese as much as I do). There’s a nerve ending that comes down from the brain almost to the roof of the mouth that picks up the feel of fat, and the industry thus calls the allure of fat “mouthfeel.”

8The presence of fat, too, gets picked up by nerve endings and races along the neurological channel to the pleasure center of the brain. Which lights up, as strongly as it lights up for sugar. There are different kinds of fats — some good — but it’s the saturated fats, which are common in processed foods, that are of most concern to doctors. They’re linked to heart disease if over-consumed. And since fats have twice as many calories as sugar, they can be problematic from an obesity standpoint.

9But potato chips actually have the entire holy trinity: They’re also loaded with sugar. Not added sugar — although some varieties do — but the sugar in most chips is in the potato starch itself, which gets converted to sugar in the moment the chip hits the tongue. Unlike fat, which studies show can exist in unlimited quantities in food without repulsing us, we do back off when a food is too sweet. The challenge is to achieve just the right depth of sweetness without crossing over into the extreme. The industry term for this optimal amount of sugar is called the “bliss point.”

10So you’ve got all three of the big elements in this one product. But salt, sugar, and fat are just the beginning of the potato chip’s allure. British researchers, for instance, have found that the more noise a chip makes when you eat it, the better you’ll like it and the more apt you are to eat more. So chip companies spend a lot of effort creating a perfectly noisy, crunchy chip.

11The chip has an amazing textural allure, too, a kind of meltiness on the tongue. The ultraprocessed food product most admired by food company scientists in this regard is the Cheeto, which rapidly dissolves in your mouth. When that happens, it creates a phenomenon that food scientists call “vanishing caloric density.” Which refers to the phenomenon that as the Cheeto melts, your brain interprets that melting to mean that the calories in the Cheeto have disappeared as well. So they tend to uncouple your brain from the breaks that keep your body from overeating. And the message coming back from the brain is: “Hey, you might as well be eating celery for all I care about all the calories in those disappearing Cheetos. Go for it.”

12Then there’s the whole act of handling the chip — the fact that we move it with our hand directly to the mouth. When you move a food directly to your mouth with your hand there are fewer barriers to overeating. You don’t need to wait until you have a fork, or a spoon, or a plate to eat. You can eat with one hand while doing something else. These handheld products lead to what nutrition scientists call “mindless eating” — where we’re not really paying attention to what we’re putting in our mouths. This has been shown to be hugely conducive to over-eating. One recent example is the Go-Gurt yogurt that comes in a collapsible tube. Once you open it, you can just squeeze out the yogurt with one hand while you’re playing a computer game with the other.

13The bottom line, which everyone in the food industry will tell you, is taste. They’re convinced that a good number of us will talk a good game on nutrition and health, but when we walk through the grocery store, we’ll look for and buy the products that taste the best. And that’s the cynical view: They will do nothing to improve the health profile of their products that will jeopardize taste. They’re as hooked on profits as they are on salt, sugar, fat.

GRAPHIC ORGANIZER 16.2 The Structure of “The Language of Junk Food Addiction”

The items from the left side of the process chart are numbered here for clarity. Items bulleted here are connected to associated numbered items by lines. Downward arrows connect the bulleted items. 1. Title (Bullet) “The Language of Junk Food Addiction: How to ’Read’ a Potato Chip” 2. Introduction (Bullet) Topic: A Potato Chip (Bullet) Thesis: The potato chip is engineered to captivate our taste buds. 3. Body: Elements of Appeal (Bullet) The salt makes you crave potato chips. (Bullet) The fat in a potato chip has an addictive “mouthfeel.” (Bullet) The sugar (potato starch) in a potato chip captivates your taste buds. (Bullet) The crunchy noise contributes to the potato chip’s appeal. (Bullet) The way a chip dissolves on your tongue makes you disregard the calories. (Bullet) The ease of eating a chip with one hand leads to overeating. 4. Conclusion (Bullet) People buy a product based on taste.

EXERCISE 16.3

DRAWING A GRAPHIC ORGANIZER

Using Graphic Organizer 16.1 as a basis, draw a graphic organizer for “Reds, Blues, and Purples: Which Five TV Shows Bring Them All Together?”

HOW WRITERS READ

CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION

EXERCISE 16.4

READING CRITICALLY

Apply the questions in the “How Writers Read” box above to the selection “The Language of Junk Food Addiction: How to ’Read’ a Potato Chip.”

Integrate Classification or Division into an Essay

Classification and division are often used along with one or more other patterns of development.

✵ An essay that argues for stricter gun control may categorize guns in terms of their firepower, purpose, or availability.

✵ A narrative about a writer’s frustrating experiences in a crowded international airport terminal may categorize the types of travel frustration or divide the airport into zones of frustration.

When incorporating classification or division into an essay based on another pattern of development, keep the following tips in mind:

1. Avoid focusing on why the classification or division is meaningful. When used as a secondary pattern, the significance of the classification or division should be clear from the context in which it is presented.

2. State the principle of classification briefly and clearly.

3. Name the categories or parts. In the sentence that introduces the classification or division, name the categories or parts to focus your readers’ attention on the explanation that follows.

PREWRITING DRAFTING REVISING EDITING & PROOFREADING

A Guided Writing Assignment*

CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION

Your Essay Assignment

Write a classification or division essay on a topic that you believe would interest other students at your college or readers who share an interest or experience of yours. The following are some options for general topics:

PREWRITING

1 Select a topic, devise a principle of classification or division, and list the categories of which it is made up or the parts into which it breaks down.

Choose a topic idea, and then try one of the following suggestions to generate ideas for categories or part:

✵ Start from the categories or parts: Brainstorm, freewrite, or use another idea-generating strategy to generate details describing your topic. Then categorize the details into logical groups. Look for three or four groups or parts that share a common thread.

✵ Start from a principle of classification or division: Think about a trait or principle (like degrees of enthusiasm for sports fans or types of horror films) and then freewrite, brainstorm with a friend or classmate, or use another strategy to come up with the specific types or parts.

In small groups, test your categories (classification) or parts (division) to make sure that:

1. all members of a category fit or no essential parts have been omitted

2. all categories are exclusive (each group member fits in one category only) or no parts overlap

3. categories or parts will engage your readers

4. names of categories or parts describe them accurately, emphasizing their distinguishing features

^· * The writing process is recursive; that is, you may find yourself revising as you draft or prewriting as you revise. This is especially true when writing on a computer. Your writing process may also differ from project to project and from that of your classmates.

2 Consider your purpose, audience, and point of view.

Ask yourself these questions:

✵ What is my purpose, and who is my audience? How do they affect my topic, my principle of classification or division, and my categories or parts?

✵ How might additional patterns of development help readers understand and appreciate my topic?

✵ What point of view best suits my purpose and audience? First person (I, we) or second person (you) may be appropriate in informal writing if your audience has personal knowledge of or experience with the topic. Third person (he, she, it, they) is appropriate in more formal writing or for topics less familiar to your audience.

3 Generate supporting details.

Try one of the following suggestions for generating supporting details that will engage your readers and reinforce your purpose:

1. Alone or in pairs, visit a place where you can observe your topic or the people associated with it. For example, to generate details about pets, visit a pet store or an animal shelter. Make notes on what you see and hear. Record conversations, physical characteristics, behaviors, and so forth.

2. Conduct research to discover facts, examples, and other details about your topic.

3. Use the patterns of development to generate details. Ask yourself how the categories or parts are similar or different (comparison and contrast), what examples you can use to illustrate the categories or parts (illustration), what stories or anecdotes would help you distinguish categories or parts (narration), or how you would describe parts or group members using language that appeals to the senses (description).

DRAFTING

4 Draft your thesis statement.

Your thesis statement should identify your topic and reveal your principle of division or classification. It should also suggest why your classification or division is useful or important. Notice how the following weak thesis is strengthened by showing both what the categories are and why they are important:

Working Together. In groups of two or three students, take turns reading your thesis aloud. As group members listen, have them:

1. list your categories/parts

2. write down why they matter

Finally, as a group, discuss how writers could make their categories or parts more distinctive and how they could show readers why these categories or parts are useful or important.

5 Choose a method of organization.

✵ Least-to-most and most-to-least work well in classification essays. You might arrange categories in increasing order of importance or from most to least common, difficult, or frequent.

✵ Chronological order works well when one category occurs or is observable before another.

✵ Spatial order works well in division essays when describing a place.

✵ Reviewing Chapter 7 may help you understand the methods of organization.

6 Draft your classification or division essay.

Use the following guidelines to keep your essay on track:

✵ The introduction should provide any background readers will need, include your thesis statement, and suggest why the classification or division is useful or important; it might also state your principle of classification or division.

✵ The body paragraphs should name and elaborate on your categories or parts, explain the traits they share, and provide the details readers need to understand and accept them. Be sure you devote roughly the same amount of detail to each category or part. Headings can help identify categories or parts discussed in multiple paragraphs; a list can help identify a large number of categories or parts; a diagram or flowchart may help make your system of classification or division clearer to readers. Include transitions such as first, next, in contrast, and on the one/other hand to keep readers on track as your essay moves from one category or part to another.

✵ The conclusion should bring your essay to a satisfying close, returning to your thesis and elaborating on why the classification or division is useful and important or offering a new insight or perspective on the topic.

REVISING

7 Evaluate your draft and revise as necessary.

Use Figure 16.1, “Flowchart for Revising a Classification and Division Essay,” to evaluate and revise your draft.

FIGURE 16.1 Flowchart for Revising a Classification or Division Essay

The following information is provided. Question 1: Highlight your thesis statement. Does it, along with the rest of your introduction, reveal your principle of classification or division and suggest why it is important? If yes, proceed to Question 2. If no, use these revision strategies: (Bullet) Revise your thesis to make your justification stronger or more apparent. (Bullet) Add explanatory information to your introduction. Question 2: Write the principle of classification you used at the top of your paper. Do you use this principle consistently throughout the essay? Does it fit your audience and purpose? Does it clearly relate to your thesis? If yes, proceed to Question 3. If no, use these revision strategies: (Bullet) Brainstorm other possible principles of classification or division, and decide if one better fits your audience and purpose. (Bullet) Revise your categories and parts to fit either your existing principle or a new one or rewrite your thesis to reflect your principle of classification/ division. Question 3: Underline the names of categories or parts. Do they cover all members of the group or all major parts of the topic? Are your categories or parts exclusive (not overlapping)? If yes, proceed to Question 4. If no, use these revision strategies: (Bullet) Brainstorm or conduct research to add categories or parts. (Bullet) Revise your categories or parts so that each item fits into one group only. Question 4: Place a checkmark beside the details that explain each category or part. Does your essay fully explain each one? If yes, proceed to Question 5. If no, use these revision strategies: (Bullet) Brainstorm or do research to generate more details. (Bullet) Add examples, definitions, facts, and expert testimony to improve your explanations. Question 5: Write the method of organization you used at the top of your essay. Is the organization clear? Does this method suit your audience and purpose? Have you followed it consistently? If yes, proceed to Question 6. If no, use these revision strategies: (Bullet) Refer to Chapter 7 to discover a more appropriate organizing plan. (Bullet) Revise the order of your categories or parts. (Bullet) Add transitions to make your organization clear. The following information is provided. Question 6: Underline the topic sentence of each paragraph. Is each paragraph focused on a single category or part? If yes, proceed to Question 7. If no, use these revision strategies: (Bullet) Consider splitting paragraphs that cover more than one category or part. (Bullet) Consider using headings to group paragraphs on a single category or part. Question 7: Reread your conclusion. Does it offer a new insight or perspective on the topic or explain why your classification or division is useful or important? If no, use this revision strategy: (Bullet) Ask yourself: “So what? What is the point I’m trying to make?” Build your answers into the conclusion.

EDITING & PROOFREADING

8 Edit and proofread your essay.

Refer to Chapter 9 for help with

✵ editing sentences to avoid wordiness, make your verb choices strong and active, and make your sentences clear, varied, and parallel

✵ editing words for tone and diction, connotation, and concrete and specific language

Pay particular attention to the following:

1. Avoid short, choppy sentences, which can make a classification or division essay sound dull and mechanical. Try combining a series of short sentences and varying sentence patterns and lengths.

Example 1. The original statement reads, “Working dogs are another one of the American Kennel Club’s breed categories. These include German shepherds and sheepherding dogs.” The revised statement reads, “Working dogs, such as German shepherds and sheepherding dogs, are another one of the American Kennel Club’s breed categories.” Example 2. The original statement reads, “One standard type of writing instrument is the fountain pen. It is sometimes messy and inconvenient to use.” The revised statement reads, “The fountain pen, one standard type of writing instrument, is sometimes messy and inconvenient to use.”

2. Add a comma after opening phrases or clauses longer than four words.

Example 1 reads, “When describing types of college students be sure to consider variations in age.” In the above sentence, a comma is added after the word "students." Example 2 reads, “Although there are many types of cameras most are easy to operate.” In the above sentence, a comma is added after the word "cameras."

Readings: Classification and Division in Action

STUDENTS WRITE

Science Fiction: Three Forms, Many Fans

Mya Nunnally

Title: Identifies subject

Mya Nunnally wrote the following essay in response to an assignment for her writing course, in which she was asked to write an essay about a genre of literature, explaining its various forms and the characteristics of each. As you read the essay, consider how effectively Nunnally explains her groupings. Does her principle of classification make sense? Does she provide enough detail to convince you that the groupings exist and that her topic is useful or important?

Paragraph 1 reads, “On a stormy night in 1816, Mary Shelley, her husband Percy Shelley, and their friend Lord Byron decided to have a contest to see who could write the best ghost story. Mary Shelley, inspired by a nightmare she had the night before, wrote Frankenstein, a story in which a scientist uses electricity to bring a corpse back to life. It was at this moment that an eighteen-year-old teenager invented modern science fiction (Wolfe). Since Frankenstein, science fiction has exploded, becoming one of Western society’s most popular art forms, available not only as books, but also as comics, graphic novels, movies, and television shows. The variety of forms in which science fiction is available contributes to its universal appeal.” The corresponding annotation reads, “Introduction: Provides background; thesis identifies topic and principle of classification, and demonstrates the importance of the categories.” The thesis, “The variety of forms in which science fiction is available contributes to its universal appeal,” is double underlined; principle of classification, “variety of forms,” is highlighted; and the categories, “books, comics, graphic novels, movies, and television shows,” are highlighted. Paragraph 2 reads, “The form that gave science fiction its start — books — began with classics such as Frankenstein, Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World (1932), and Octavia Butler’s Kindred (1979) defining the genre, and much science fiction content is still presented in book format. Series like The Hunger Games (2008- 2010) and Divergent (2011- 2013) have dominated the New York Times bestseller’s list for years. Most recently, N. K. Jemisin’s Broken Earth trilogy (2015- 2017) has caught readers’ imaginations, winning prestigious awards like science fiction’s Hugo Award for Best Novel three years in a row.” The accompanying annotations read, “Organization: Topic sentence introduces Category 1 — books. Support: examples show popularity of book form.” The topic sentence, “The form that gave science fiction its start — books — began with classics such as Frankenstein, Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World (1932), and Octavia Butler’s Kindred (1979) defining the genre, and much science fiction content is still presented in book format,” is double-underlined. The word “books” is highlighted. Paragraph 3 reads, “Numerous features contribute to the popularity of science fiction in book form. Any science fiction novel can be checked out a local library” The sentence continues on the next page. The corresponding annotation reads, “Organization: Topic sentence identifies characteristics that drive category 1’s popularity. The topic sentence, “Numerous features contribute to the popularity of science fiction in book form,” is double-underlined.

Paragraph 3 reads, “or bought inexpensively on a used book website. Another characteristic contributing to the popularity of books is that fiction’s prose allows the reader’s imagination to run wild, creating a whole new world and characters in one’s head. Because books do not supply visuals in the text as comics or film do, readers can create immersive worlds inside their own minds. Furthermore, because books started the science fiction genre in the early nineteenth century, there are decades of novels to choose from — hundreds and thousands of authors and series. However, books — which require a significant investment in time and imagination — can be an intimidating place to start. For this reason, novices may want to dive into science fiction in a more accessible form — film or television.” The corresponding annotation reads, “Transitions: Transitions guide readers through characteristics of genre that explain popularity and connect to next form.” The words “another,” “furthermore,” and “however” indicate transitions. Paragraph 4 reads, “It was almost a century after Frankenstein before science fiction was introduced in another format — film — with Charcuterie Mechanique by Auguste and Louis Lumiere in 1895 and Georges Meleis’s Le Voyage dans la Lune (The Trip to the Moon) in 1902 (Fischer p. 9). Now, T V series like Star Trek and Star Wars are probably many people’s first introduction to science fiction. Television shows like Westworld and Black Mirror cultivate faithful followings, and movies like Men in Black and Pacific Rim leave fans eager for the next installment. What makes film and television depictions of science fiction so popular? One characteristic is probably film’s ability to mix language, images, and music to make a story come to life. Soundtracks can easily signal the mood or atmosphere of any scene, from screeching violins in a horror movie to a sweeping orchestra in a romantic comedy, which adds to the viewer’s experience. Another aspect is science-fiction film’s use of special effects, which make the imaginary seem real. George Meleis introduced the use of stop-motion animation and double exposure in his groundbreaking film (Miller p. 13); his techniques may seem crude by today’s standards, but they astounded viewers in 1902 (Miller p. 15). Today, C G I (computer-generated imagery) technology can bring any science fiction idea, from Godzilla to the humanistic apes in Rise of the Planet of the Apes, to life on screen. Film can create 3- D special effects (as in Avatar, 2009) that seem tangible in the world of the movie or television show, adding to the immersive aspect of this form.” The corresponding annotation reads, “Organization: Topic sentence introduces Category 2; transitions suggest method of organization in chronological order and introduce characteristics driving the Category 2’s popularity.” The topic sentence, “It was almost a century after Frankenstein before science fiction was introduced in another format — film — with Charcuterie Mechanique by Auguste and Louis Lumiere in 1895 and Georges Meleis’s Le Voyage dans la Lune ( The Trip to the Moon) in 1902 (Fischer p. 9),” is double-underlined; the words “film” and “T V series” are highlighted; and transition words “now,” “one,” “another,” and “today” are underlined.

Two movie posters. The first poster shows Le Voyage dans La Lune, 1902, and the second poster shows Rise of the Planets of the Apes, 2011 (On Blu-Ray and D V D December, 13). Both posters emphasize the films’ powerful special effects that helped transport viewers to another world. The corresponding annotation reads, “Comparison-contrast: Movie posters show both films’ special effects and contrast early and later technology.” Paragraph 5 reads, “Very different is the two-dimensional visual story telling of science fiction’s third form — comics. Comics use sequential art to tell a story, combining the illustrative talents of artists and the storytelling of writers to create a unique hybrid medium. Comics use many elements not found in books or films, such as panels, speech bubbles, and frames to tell a story. They come together to make an art form that allows for special storytelling capabilities. According to Scott McCloud, an inventive comic artist whose book Understanding Comics (1993) explains the magic of the form, says comics differ from traditional novels and films because they depend so much on the imagination of the reader to fill gaps between panels (p. 94). Readers of comics construct a story out of the art, its sequence, and the dialogue and text found on the page. Another characteristic that sets comics apart is their unique blending of realism and the imaginary. Stories that might not have worked in any other form work in comics. Art Spiegelman’s Maus, for example, retells the story of his father’s time in the Holocaust through characters represented as” (The paragraph continues on the next page.) The corresponding annotation reads, “Organization: Topic sentence introduces Category 3; transitions introduce supporting evidence from source and highlight characteristics that drive popularity of Category 3.” The topic sentence, “Very different is the two-dimensional visual story telling of science fiction’s third form — comics,” is double-underline; the word “comics” is highlighted; and transition words “according,” “another,” and “for example” are underlined.

Two book covers. The first book cover shows Maus: A Survivor’s Tale, volume 1, and the second book cover shows Saga, Volume 51. They illustrate the species-bending possibilities that science fiction comics allow. The corresponding annotation reads, “Illustration: Covers of two graphic works named show blending of ’realism and the imaginary.’” Paragraph 5 continues, “animals depending on their ethnicity. Science fiction comics such as Brian K. Vaughn’s Saga and Shirow Masamune’s Ghost in the Shell, a Japanese manga, take advantage of this form of storytelling to tell riveting tales.” Paragraph 6 reads, “Science fiction has come a long way from a teenage girl’s story about a mad scientist and his creation. It now comes in many forms, from classic novels to illustrated comics to the latest blockbuster movie. Because it exists in so many different mediums, there are plenty of ways for everyone to experience it, no matter how big or how small one’s budget and commitment to the genre. In the nineteenth century, there were only science fiction books, and people could hardly imagine the films and comics we have access to today. As technology progresses and creators develop even more ways to experience science fiction, perhaps another form will emerge — something unimaginable to everyone at the moment. What could it be?” The corresponding annotation reads, “Conclusion: Revisits background, restates thesis, and speculates about a future, as yet unknown, Category 4.” The thesis, “It now comes in many forms, from classic novels to illustrated comics to the latest blockbuster movie,” is double-underlined.

The works cited are as follows. Fischer, Dennis. Science Fiction Film Directors, 1895— 1998. McFarland, 2011. McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. Kitchen Sink Press, 1993. Miller, Ron. Special Effects: An Introduction to Movie Magic. Twenty-First Century Books, 2006. Wolfe, Gary K. “Mary Shelley and the Birth of Science Fiction.” The Great Courses Daily, 2 Mar. 2017, w w w dot the great courses daily dot com forward slash mary hyphen shelley hyphen science hyphen fiction.

Analyzing the Writer’s Technique

1. Summarize According to Nunnally, why are books a popular format for science fiction?

2. Organization What principle of organization does Nunnally use to structure her essay? How effective is it?

3. Introduction and Conclusion Evaluate Nunnally’s introduction and conclusion. How successful are they at engaging readers’ interest? Does she convey to readers a sense of her topic’s importance or a new insight or perspective? Why or why not?

Thinking Critically about Classification and Division

1. Connotation What is the connotation of the phrase “a sweeping orchestra” (para. 4)?

2. Fact or Opinion Reread the last sentence of paragraph 3. Is this fact or opinion? How can you tell?

3. Sources Evaluate Nunnally’s use of sources. Are her sources convincing? What additional types of sources might have made her claims more convincing? Why?

4. Tone Consider Nunnally’s tone. What kind of audience does she seem to be addressing?

Responding to the Essay

1. Reaction Nunnally says that “books—which require a significant investment in time and imagination—can be an intimidating place to start.” Do you agree with this statement? Why or why not? In your opinion, what could make books a little less intimidating?

2. Discussion In the final sentence of her conclusion, Nunnally writes, “As technology progresses and creators develop even more ways to experience science fiction, perhaps another form will emerge—something unimaginable to everyone at the moment. What could it be?” Use your imagination and discuss what form(s) might emerge.

3. Journal Write a journal entry describing your favorite work of science fiction and explaining why you like it.

4. Essay Nunnally’s essay describes current forms of science fiction and the characteristics that give each form its appeal. Think of other ways you could classify or divide science fiction. For example, you might divide types of characters or themes, or you might classify the types of special effects. Once you have decided on the method and brainstormed for details, write an essay that includes the principle of classification or division, the categories or parts, the distinguishing characteristics, and examples. Use Nunnally’s essay as a model for your writing.

READING

Empower Pupils to Beat the Bullies

Ian Rivers

Ian Rivers professor of human development in the School of Sport and Education at Brunel University. This essay is based on his inaugural lecture, “A Land of Mythical Monsters and ’Wee Timorous Beasties’: Reflections on Two Decades of Research on Bullying.” Before reading, preview and make connections by thinking about situations in which you have observed or experienced bullying. What role, if any, did the bystanders play? While reading, notice how Rivers’s classification essay also uses cause and effect to fully explain each category.

JUST-IN-TIME TIP

Grouping or Dividing Ideas

“Empower Pupils to Beat the Bullies” categorizes bystanders by type, explains why they behave as they do, and reports the effects of their behavior. To help you organize all of this information, create a chart (like the one below) once you finish reading. As you read, highlight information to include in the chart.

Expressing ideas in chart form (or by writing summary notes, if you prefer) will help you clarify relationships among ideas and help you see the “big picture.” Creating the chart will also help you remember what you read. By identifying the reasons bystanders fail to act and the effects of their behavior in your own words, you are also consolidating key information.

See the Just-in-Time Guide, section 6a.

1What are bystanders? Social psychology tells us that they are people who bear witness to an event and who, by their action or inaction, can change the outcome of that event. Much of the research conducted on bystanders’ behavior has cast them as passive, almost anaesthetized, observers whose behavior is very much secondary to the “event” taking place. While there has been much more interest in the role of bystanders in workplace bullying, it is only recently that school-based research has moved away from looking at their behavior — or the lack of it — and focused more on their own emotional well-being, in an attempt to understand why they do not intervene.

2Together with colleagues from Boston College in the United States (V. Paul Poteat) and York St. John University in the United Kingdom (Nathalie Noret), I have attempted to better understand the “mindset” of the bystander, in the hope that it will provide me with further clues as to why bullying continues, despite forty years of research and intervention. In essence, this research has resulted in a recasting of the role of the bystander into three very distinct types of pupil: the confederate, the co-victim, and the isolate. These three types are very different from the pupil who does not engage; these are pupils who are desperate to avoid the torment being meted out on their classmate. This is not rocket science, but it does highlight a flaw in much of the research that has gone before: Without taking into account the experiences of bystanders, we may have underplayed the lasting impact that bullying can have on individuals and the school community.

3So what do we learn if we recast the bystander in these three roles? We learn that the confederates of the bully may not be the mythical monsters we have demonized, but pupils who experience a great deal of emotional turmoil, such as feelings of self-loathing. This can lead to a series of harmful outcomes for all involved, such as an escalation in violence perpetrated against the victim (ironically to maintain a positive self-image), substance use, or truancy.

4For the co-victim, clinical studies of community violence tell us that the potential for long-term psychological harm is just as real, as if the bystander had been the target of abuse. One systematic review of twenty-six studies of the implications of exposure to community violence among urban adolescents found a relationship between witnessing violence and poor mental health, post-traumatic stress, and, surprisingly, aggression. In fact, there is increasing anecdotal evidence to suggest that some of the most heinous acts of violence perpetrated in schools have been carried out by young people who were themselves victims of bullying.

5For the isolate — those who try to distance themselves — the story is less clear. Very little is known about this group. Sometimes these pupils appear as reference groups or control groups in studies because they report little or no involvement in bullying. But if the fear of being humiliated or abused by others actively encourages these pupils to hide away, this protective defense mechanism (albeit effective in the short-term) may also have lasting detrimental effects. Isolating oneself may reduce feelings of personal failure, but it can also result in internalized hostility and self-loathing, which have been linked to depression and self-harm. Furthermore, isolation itself may not be a useful long-term strategy: It has been linked to unpopularity, especially among adolescents, and identifies isolates as potential bullying “targets” without friends to support or protect them.

6So what can we do? As part of an expert panel convened in the United States, I reported on the findings from our study exploring correlations between being a bystander and contemplating suicide. One finding stood out from the others: Bystanders feel powerless. We need to empower pupils to stop bullying. But what does this mean? It means instilling in perpetrators a sense of disloyalty when they break the pupil code and victimize others. It means that every bully should know she or he has broken the code they have developed with their peers, that they have let themselves down and, more importantly, let everyone else down.

7We do not need gimmicks, DVDs, complex strategies, or the myriad of for-profit resources that are out there. If we do need training in our schools, it is social skills training. As adults, we know how difficult it is to talk to strangers, and yet we presume that this comes naturally to children. Bullying is most prevalent in the first year of secondary school, we are told, so that may be a good place to reboot our efforts.

Understanding the Reading

1. Background According to Rivers, how has the focus of research on school bullying changed recently?

2. Details What actions does Rivers recommend to address the problem of school bullying?

3. Details Why does the author say isolation may not be a useful long-term strategy for coping with bullies?

4. Vocabulary Explain the meaning of each of the following words as it is used in the reading: anaesthetized (para. 1), confederate (2), heinous (4), detrimental (5), and myriad (7). Refer to your dictionary as needed.

Analyzing the Writer’s Technique

1. Introduction Is it helpful or unnecessary for Rivers to give his reasons for conducting research into the mindset of bystanders?

2. Title What is the function of the essay’s title?

3. Audience and Purpose What is Rivers’s purpose in writing this essay? Who is his audience?

4. Patterns What other patterns of development does Rivers use in the essay?

Thinking Critically about the Text

1. Connotation What is the connotation of “bystander”?

2. Support What types of evidence does Rivers use to support his ideas? Does he provide sufficient detail in each category? What other kinds of details might be helpful or persuasive?

3. Meaning What does the author mean when he refers to confederates as “the mythical monsters we have demonized” (para. 3)?

4. Tone Describe the tone of the essay. What does it reveal about Rivers’s attitude toward his subject?

Responding to the Reading

1. Discussion Have you observed students acting as bullies or as bystanders? What information in the essay reflects your own experience? What, if anything, conflicts with your experience?

2. Journal Write a journal entry exploring how you think schools should address bullying. Explain whether you agree with the author that the answer lies in empowering students in the way he describes.

3. Essay Consider what the author means by “the pupil code” (para. 6). In your opinion, what are the essential elements of a pupil code? Write an essay defining the term and dividing your code into its key components. (Hint: You might use the author’s ideas as a starting point and include loyalty to peers and/or respect for others.)

EXPLORE, RESEARCH, WRITE

In “Empower Pupils to Beat the Bullies,” Ian Rivers classifies bystanders by type and then uses cause-and-effect reasoning to explain how each type is affected by bullying. Many other reading selections also explore the roll of the bystander in bullying, including the following:

✵ “Bystanders Are Essential to Bullying Prevention and Intervention,” a factsheet developed by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

✵ “Are Mindful Students Less Likely to Bully,” by Tara Hornich-Lisciandro on the National Education Association’s Web site NEA Today

✵ “Bystanders Are the Key to Stopping Bullying,” by Sharon Padgett and Dr. Charles E. Notar, Jacksonville State University (Universal Journal of Educational Research, vol. 1, no. 2 [2013], pp. 33—41)

Using your own ideas and one or more of the selections included above, write a well-crafted classification essay in which you discuss at least two additional types of bystanders to bullying and their motivations. (As you will remember, Rivers identifies three types of bystanders—confederate, co-victim, and isolate—but other psychologists and mental health professionals may suggest other types and categories.) Be sure to incorporate at least one quotation from the readings and cite it correctly at the end of the essay.

The Guided Writing Assignment in this chapter can walk you through the process of writing a classification essay; for help with evaluating sources, see Chapter 21; for help choosing and synthesizing ideas from sources, see Chapter 22; for help with documenting sources, see Chapter 23.

Apply Your Skills: Additional Essay Assignments

Write a classification or division essay on one of the following topics, using what you learned about classification and division in this chapter. Depending on the topic you choose, you may need to conduct research.

For more on locating and documenting sources, see Part 5.

To Express Your Ideas

1. Explain whether you are proud of or frustrated with your ability to budget money. For example, you might classify budget categories that are easy to master versus those that cause problems.

2. Explain why you chose your career or major. Categorize the job opportunities or benefits of your chosen field, and explain why they are important to you.

3. Divide a store — such as a computer store, clothing store, or grocery store — into departments. Describe where you are most and least tempted to overspend.

To Inform Your Reader

4. Write an essay for the readers of your college newspaper classifying college instructors’ teaching styles.

5. Explain the parts of a ceremony or an event you have attended or participated in.

6. Divide a familiar substance (like toothpaste) or object (like a Web page or a basketball team) into its component parts.

To Persuade Your Reader

7. Behavior in response to a natural disaster (such as a fire or flood) or health crisis (such as a measles epidemic or the Covid-19 pandemic) can vary from panic to a carefully thought out plan for action. Classify the responses to a crisis that you have seen or heard about, and then take a position as to which behaviors are helpful and productive and which are not.

8. In an essay that categorizes types of parenting skills and demonstrates how they are learned, develop the argument that effective parenting skills can be acquired through practice, training, or observation.

Cases Using Classification or Division

9. Write an essay for an introductory education class identifying a problem you have experienced or observed in the public education system. Divide public education into parts to better explain your problem.

10. You oversee the development of the annual catalog for a large community college, including the section describing the services offered to students. Decide how that section of the catalog should be organized, and then list the categories it should include. Finally, write a description of the services in one category.

SYNTHESIZING IDEAS

FOOD

Both “I’m Not Leaving until I Eat This Thing” and “The Language of Junk Food Addiction: How to ’Read’ a Potato Chip” deal with food. “The Language of Junk Food Addiction” focuses on little-known facts about a well-known product—potato chips—while “I’m Not Leaving until I Eat This Thing” recounts the author’s experience with a most unusual food—pickled pig lips.

Analyzing the Readings

1. What attitude did the two authors have toward the product they were describing?

2. Write a journal entry exploring the differences and/or similarities that exist between the production of the products, the elements of appeal, and the targeted market.

Essay Idea

Write an essay in which you analyze attitudes toward two or three different categories of foods—for example, organic food, gourmet food, and convenience food. You might consider value, cost, or availability.