Definition - Patterns of development

Successful college writing, Eighth edition - Kathleen T. McWhorter 2020

Definition
Patterns of development

Explaining What You Mean

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In this chapter you will learn to

✵ understand the purpose and function of definition essays

✵ use graphic organizers to visualize definition essays

✵ integrate definition into an essay

✵ read and think critically about definition

✵ plan, organize, draft, revise, and edit essays using definition

Writing Quick Start

ANALYZE

Suppose your psychology instructor showed this photograph to the class and asked, “What type of human behavior is being exhibited here?” What would be your response? You might say the people in the photograph are demonstrating social distancing or cooperation, for example.

WRITE

Compose a paragraph defining the motivation of the two people shown in the photograph. First choose a term that describes their motivation or behavior. Then write a brief definition of the term you chose and explain the qualities or characteristics of the motivation or behavior.

CONNECT

The paragraph you have just composed is a good example of a definition paragraph.

Definition is a way of explaining the meaning of a term, often intended for those who are unfamiliar with the thing or idea being explained. In this chapter you will learn to use definition to explain. Often you will use other patterns, as well, to provide a complete explanation. For example, you might explain the term koi to someone unfamiliar with tropical fish by identifying their characteristics, but also describe their appearance or compare them to other types of tropical fish.

Definition is a powerful tool for writers, but it requires accuracy and precision. You must clearly distinguish the thing or idea from those that are similar, and you must provide enough characteristics so your reader fully understands the term. Definitions are useful in a variety of everyday and academic situations. For example, if you call a friend a nonconformist, she might ask you what you mean. In academic fields, definitions are often supplied to avoid confusion, misinterpretation, and misuse of information.

USING DEFINITION

IN COLLEGE AND THE WORKPLACE

✵ On an exam for a health and fitness course, the following short-answer question appears: “Define the term wellness.

✵ Your psychology instructor asks you to write a paper exploring classical conditioning. As part of the essay, you need to define the concept and provide examples from everyday life.

✵ As a chemical engineer responsible for your department’s compliance with the company’s standards for safety and work efficiency, you write a brief memo to your staff defining each term.

What Are the Characteristics of Extended Definitions?

If you wanted to define the term happiness, you would probably have trouble coming up with a brief definition because the emotion is experienced in a wide variety of situations, and the term may mean different things to different people. However, you could explore the term in an essay and explain what it means to you. Such a lengthy, detailed definition is called an extended definition.

Extended definitions are particularly useful in exploring a topic’s various meanings and applications. Some extended definitions begin with a brief standard definition that anchors the essay’s thesis statement. Other extended definitions begin by introducing a new way of thinking about the term. Whatever approach is used, the remainder of the extended definition then clarifies the term by using one or more other patterns of development.

An Extended Definition Is Focused and Detailed

An extended definition focuses on a specific term and discusses it in detail. In the first reading, “Freegans: They Life Off What We Throw Away,” for example, the author defines freeganism. To explain the concept, she explores the origin of the word freegan, describes the freegan philosophy, explains how and where freegans forage for their food, and discusses safety measures.

An Extended Definition Often Includes a Standard Definition of the Term

A standard definition, such as the kind found in a dictionary, consists of three parts:

✵ the term itself

✵ the class to which the term belongs

✵ the characteristics or details that distinguish the term from all others in its class

Here are two examples:

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Example 1 reads, “A wedding band is a ring, often made of gold, that brides and grooms exchange during a marriage ceremony.” In this example, "A wedding band" is labeled as term, "ring" as class, and "often made of gold that brides and grooms exchange during a marriage ceremony," as distinguishing characteristics. Example 2 reads, “Dalmatian is a breed of dog that originated in Dalmatia; it has a short, smooth coat with black or dark brown spots.” In this example, "Dalmatian" is labeled as term, "breed of dog" as class, and "originated in Dalmatia; it has a short, smooth coat with black or dark brown spots" as distinguishing characteristics.

To write an effective standard definition, use the following guidelines:

1. Describe the class as specifically as possible. This will make it easier for your reader to understand the term you define. Notice, for example, that for Dalmatian, the class is not animal or mammal but rather a breed of dog.

2. Do not use the term (or forms of the term) as part of your definition. Do not write, “Mastery means that one has mastered a skill.” In place of mastered, you could use learned, for example.

3. Include enough distinguishing characteristics so that your readers will not mistake the term for something similar within the class. If you define a food processor as “an appliance that purees food,” your definition would be incomplete because a blender also purees food. A more complete definition would be “an appliance with interchangeable blades that shreds, dices, chops, or purees food.”

4. Do not limit the definition so much that it becomes inaccurate. Defining bacon as “a smoked, salted meat from the side of a pig that is served at breakfast” would be too limited because bacon is also served at other meals. To make the definition accurate, you could either delete “that is served at breakfast” or add a qualifying expression like “usually” or “most often” before “served.”

Look at the following definition of the term bully, taken from a magazine article on the topic. As you read it, study the highlighting and marginal notes.

Term

Three characteristics

Distinguishes bullying from similar terms

The term bully does not have a standard definition, but Dan Olweus, professor of psychology at the University of Bergen, has honed the definition to three core elements — bullying involves a pattern of repeated aggressive behavior with negative intent directed from one child to another where there is a power difference. Either a larger child or several children pick on one child, or one child is clearly more dominant than the others. Bullying is not the same as garden-variety aggression; although aggression may involve similar acts, it happens between two people of equal status. By definition, the bully’s target has difficulty defending him- or herself, and the bully’s aggressive behavior is intended to cause distress.

— Hara Estroff Marano, “Big. Bad. Bully.”

EXERCISE 17.1

WRITING STANDARD DEFINITIONS AND LISTING DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS

Write a standard definition for two of the following terms, listing the distinguishing characteristics that you might use in building an extended definition:

1. hero

2. giraffe

3. science fiction

4. social media

5. friendship

An Extended Definition Makes a Point

The thesis of an extended definition essay conveys why the term is worth reading about. The following thesis statements include a brief definition and make a point about the term:

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Statement 1 reads, “Produced by the body, hormones are chemicals that are important to physical as well as emotional development.” Here, "hormones" is labeled as term, and "important to physical as well as emotional development" is labeled as point. Statement 2 reads, “Euthanasia, the act of ending the life of someone suffering from a terminal illness, is an issue that should not be legislated; rather, it should be a matter of personal choice.” Here, "Euthanasia" is labeled as term, and "is an issue that should not be legislated; rather, it should be a matter of personal choice" is labeled as point.

Informative thesis: Makes a point about hormones that most would find relevant

Persuasive thesis: Makes a judgment regarding an important issue about which readers are likely to care

An Extended Definition Uses Other Patterns of Development

To explain the meaning of a term in an extended definition, you generally must integrate one or more other patterns of development into your essay. Suppose you want to define the term lurking as it is used in the context of the Internet, where it usually means reading postings or comments on an online forum without directly participating in the discussion. You could use

narration (Chapter 11) to relate a story about learning something by lurking

description (Chapter 12) to describe the experience of lurking

illustration (Chapter 13) to give examples of typical situations involving lurking

process analysis (Chapter 14) to explain how to lurk in an Internet chat room

comparison and contrast (Chapter 15) to compare and contrast lurking to other forms of observation

classification and division (Chapter 16) to classify the reasons people lurk — for information, entertainment, and so on

cause and effect (Chapter 18) to explain the benefits or outcomes of lurking

argument (Chapters 19 and 20) to argue that lurking is an ethical or unethical practice

EXERCISE 17.2

USING ADDITIONAL PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT

For one of the terms listed in Exercise 17.1, describe how you might use two or three patterns of development in an extended definition of the term.

An Extended Definition May Use Negation and Address Misconceptions

Your extended definition essay may use negation — explaining what a term is not — to show how the term is different from the other terms in the same class. For example, in an essay defining rollerblading (in-line skating), you might clarify how it is unlike roller skating, which uses a different type of wheeled boot that allows different kinds of motions.

You can also use negation to clarify personal meanings. In defining what you mean by relaxing vacation, you might include examples of what is not relaxing for you: the pressure to see something new every day, long lines, crowded scenic areas, and many hours in a car each day.

In addition, your extended definition may address popular misconceptions about the term being defined. In an essay defining plagiarism, for instance, you might correct the mistaken idea that plagiarism only means passing off an entire paper written by someone else as your own, explaining that plagiarism also includes using excerpts from other writers’ work without giving them credit.

EXERCISE 17.3

USING NEGATION AND ADDRESSING MISCONCEPTIONS

For two of the following broad topics, select a narrowed term and develop a standard definition of it. Then, for each term, consider how you could address misconceptions and use negation in an extended definition of the term.

1. A type of dance

2. A play, call, or player position in a sport

3. A piece of clothing (hat, jacket, jeans)

4. A term related to a course you are taking

5. A type of business

The following readings demonstrate the techniques for writing effective extended definition essays discussed above. The first reading is annotated to point out how Jan Goodwin defines freegan. As you read the second essay, try to identify for yourself how Joseph Paul Forgas uses the techniques of extended definition to explain what gullibility means.

READING

Freegans: They Live Off What We Throw Away

Jan Goodwin

Jan Goodwin is a senior fellow at Brandeis University’s Schuster Center for Investigative Journalism and a Soros Foundation Media Fellow. The winner of three Amnesty International UK Media Awards and a World Hunger Award, Goodwin has long been an activist for human rights and social justice. She wrote about the threat of extremism in the Muslim world in her books Price of Honor (1994) and Caught in the Crossfire (1987) and was a reporter for Lifetime Television’s documentary Defending Our Daughters (1998). This reading was published in 2009 in the magazine Marie-Claire, for which Goodwin was senior international editor.

Before Reading

1. Preview: Use the steps listed in Chapter 2.

2. Connect: What do you know about how and why some people scavenge for food or free merchandise?

While Reading

Study the annotations to identify the characteristics of definition.

Focus: Activities and motivations of freegans, term to be defined

Narration: Anecdote demonstrates freegan foraging

1It’s nearly closing time on a crisp Monday night at a Midtown Manhattan supermarket, when a burly crew begins tossing bulging black bags filled with the day’s trash — crusty breads, salad-bar fixings, last week’s fruits and vegetables — to the curb. Just then, a cadre of 15 jeans-and-sneakers-clad men and women turn the corner and quietly descend upon the heaps, gingerly opening and dissecting their contents. As they forage through the small mountains of discarded food, a 30-something woman sporting a green rain slicker calls out, “Over here, expensive Greek yogurt.” Seconds later, a ponytailed guy wearing a backpack hollers, “Here’s bacon and chicken for anyone who eats meat — and a perfect eggplant.” Someone shouts a reminder not to tear the bags or leave litter on the ground, lest the store get fined. After less than 30 minutes, they excitedly depart the scene, each shouldering at least one tote bag filled with booty.

Negation: Uses negation to address misconceptions

Definition: Thesis identifies term, class (“radical environmentalists ...”) distinguishing characteristics

2These urban foragers are neither homeless nor destitute. They are committed freegans, radical environmentalists (typically vegan) who reject our wasteful consumer culture by living almost entirely on what others throw away. Freegans rarely go hungry thanks to the colossal amount of food Americans dump every day — 38 million tons annually, according to the Environmental Protection Agency. Here’s another way to look at it: The United Nations says our leftovers could satisfy every single empty stomach in Africa. Those castoffs are composed, in part, of the less-than-perfect products consumers instinctively reject: bruised apples, wilted lettuce, dented cans. Who hasn’t passed on an entire carton of eggs after discovering a single slight fracture among the dozen? Supermarkets can’t unload the quarts of milk tagged with yesterday’s use-by date — which many of us interpret as a product’s expiration but in fact refers to its period of peak flavor. Meaning, there’s still plenty of life left in those quarts.

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One man’s trash is another man’s treasure. A “freegan” climbs into a dumpster behind a West Palm Beach supermarket in search of edible food.

Illustration: Examples explain motivation of freegans

Narration, description: Tells story of one freegan; describes MonDragon so readers can visualize her

3Freegans, like 24-year-old Leia MonDragon, a buxom Latina with a taste for heavy eye makeup, feast on those castoffs. “It’s amazing what you can find and the good condition it’s in,” she exclaims, holding aloft a week’s worth of produce, including watermelon, summer squash, kale, tomatoes, onions, and bananas. Though technically past their prime, they look pristine. MonDragon also scored half gallons of soy milk and lemonade, both unopened and still chilled, and bagels that only an hour earlier were for sale. “I once found 200 one-pound bags of organic fair-trade coffee beans just dumped outside a store with the trash,” she brags, like a woman combing the racks at a Gucci clearance sale.

4Aside from the $1600 a month in rent MonDragon pays for her two-bedroom Brooklyn apartment, which she shares with her boyfriend, Tate, their 1-year-old daughter, Uma, and her retired grandfather, just about everything she owns has been salvaged or handmade. She found her ivory faux-leather couch, dishes, and flatware on the street; many of Uma’s clothes and toys were recovered from boxes abandoned on sidewalks and stoops, a common sight in New York, where apartment detritus — from halogen lamps to bed frames — is blithely left on the streets. MonDragon used to get around on a bicycle she and Tate cobbled together from discarded parts, but not long ago it was stolen. “So now I’m building another one,” she says.

Background: Explains history of freeganism

5Though official figures are hard to come by, freegan ranks are believed to be in the thousands, with an estimated 500 practitioners living in New York City alone. Born of the extreme environmentalist and anti-globalization movements of the ’90s, freeganism is a wholly modern crusade whose followers live off the grid while simultaneously exploiting it. Freegans gravitate toward cities — and their relentless mounds of garbage; Web sites keep devotees in close contact with each other so they can plan group foraging outings, recruit new members, and spread word of upcoming events, like move-out day at a college dorm, a veritable freegan Christmas. Using a discarded computer they restored, MonDragon and her boyfriend routinely scour Craigslist for freebies. (The Web connection comes from a cable package her grandfather pays for.) “The only thing I don’t have yet is a skillet. But I’ll find one,” MonDragon declares confidently, as she ladles dinner — tofu-and-veggie stir-fry with lime zest — from a large stockpot.

Narration: Continues MonDragon’s story

6MonDragon first embraced freeganism five years ago as a student at a Minnesota community college, where she met Tate. “We were broke, trying to find the money for even a simple meal like rice and beans,” she explains. “We saw a freegan flyer and hooked up with some people who showed us how to do it. And just like that, we had a source of free food. It was amazing.” The more time the pair spent with entrenched freegans, the more exposure they got to the movement’s renegade rhetoric. Since relocating to New York two years ago, they have become ardent practitioners, positioning their lifestyle as a boycott of “corporate greed” and an alternative to capitalism. “It’s so wrong when people are losing their jobs, struggling to survive, that stores are throwing out such vast quantities of good food,” MonDragon sighs, as Papo, her wiry gray mutt, nips the hem of her long black skirt. She tosses him a roasted chicken leg, retrieved from her last supermarket trash run.

7MonDragon admits she was initially skeeved out by the prospect of eating garbage — Dumpsters are a frequent freegan haunt — but says she was reassured by the movement’s common-sense safety measures. Some freegans show up for Dumpster dives armed with rubber gloves and antibacterial lotion. Produce is washed thoroughly, withered leaves discarded; baked goods bearing even a hint of mold are tossed. Everything undergoes a basic smell test. (Tate says he once scarfed down day-old sushi, despite its funky aroma, and ended up with food poisoning.) And since stores generally separate discarded food from, say, bathroom trash bins, the ickiest finds are usually just putrid meats and dairy. MonDragon decontaminates all salvaged housewares with a mixture of vinegar, baking soda, and hydrogen peroxide and launders all of Uma’s secondhand stuffed animals and clothes. Though she draws the line at pre-owned underwear, instead buying new pairs from discount stores, MonDragon makes her own reusable sanitary napkins from cloth in much the same way women did a century ago. (Think that’s hard-core? Some freegans squat in abandoned buildings and jerry-rig toilets that compost their own waste matter.) “People in this country are a lot more freaked out about dirt than they need to be. We need a little dirt in our lives for our immune systems to be strong,” MonDragon says.

Background: Explains risks of freeganism

Cause-effect: Explains why MonDragon restricts her searches to the street

8“Freegans have been living this way for years and are very healthy,” says Dr. Ruth Kava, director of nutrition at the American Council on Science and Health. “In fact, a freegan’s biggest risk may be falling headfirst into a Dumpster.” That, or being slapped with a fine — or worse — for trespassing on private property to scavenge. It’s not uncommon for store owners, mistaking freegans for homeless people or burglars, to call the police. Two years ago, a pair of freegans in Steamboat Springs, CO, were sentenced to six months in jail after jumping a fence and taking a couple of handfuls of fruit and vegetables from a grocery store’s trash. For that reason, MonDragon confines her searches to whatever she finds on the street. She and Tate get by on less than $20,000 a year — he drives a taxi, and she clerks at a nonprofit during the summer. Their meager income is earmarked for inescapable expenses, like their tuition at a community college and rent. The couple qualifies for food stamps, which pay only for Uma’s formula (MonDragon stopped breast-feeding once she started working).

Conclusion: Ends with quotation that demonstrates lack of want—negation from paragraph 2

9Though she lives hand to mouth, MonDragon insists she wants for nothing. Her family eats three hearty meals a day; their closets are crammed with wool coats, shoes, shirts with tags still dangling from their sleeves. She’s got an active social life, towing Uma to playdates with other freegan moms and fielding invitations to watch DVDs with freegan friends. A week earlier, she and Tate uncovered a hoard of unopened Chinese food inside a streetside trash can, still warm in its gleaming white containers. They took it to a friend’s house for an impromptu dinner party. “We usually never take more than we need,” she explains, unzipping her black Patagonia shell and tossing it onto her bed — everything from the taupe sheets to the queen-size mattress were recovered from the streets of Manhattan. “We don’t need to. There will be more trash out there tomorrow.”

Visualize an Extended Definition Essay: Create a Graphic Organizer

Graphic Organizer 17.1 shows the basic organization of an extended definition essay.

✵ The introduction announces the term, provides background information, and usually includes the thesis statement (which briefly defines the term and indicates its significance to readers).

✵ The body paragraphs, which use one or more patterns of development, present the term’s distinguishing characteristics along with supporting details.

✵ The conclusion refers back to the thesis and brings the essay to a satisfying close.

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GRAPHIC ORGANIZER 17.1 The Basic Structure of an Extended Definition Essay

The basic structure includes, Title, Introduction, Body (uses one or more patterns of development), and Conclusion. Introduction: Introduces the term. Provides background information. Thesis statement: gives standard definition and reveals the importance or significance of the term. Body (uses one or more patterns of development): four distinguishing characteristic(s) and supporting details. Conclusion: Refers back to thesis. Draws essay to a satisfying close. The points discussed under Introduction are developed in the body of the essay, which are finally closed in the conclusion.

For more on creating a graphic organizer, see Chapter 2.

READING

Why Are Some People More Gullible Than Others?

Joseph Paul Forgas

Joseph Paul Forgas is the Scientia Professor of psychology at the University of New South Wales in Australia. His research—and he has published more than twenty books and two hundred articles—focuses on how cognition and emotion affect interpersonal communication. He is also the coeditor of the Frontiers of Social Psychology series. This article appeared in TheConversation.com on March 30, 2017—just before April Fool’s Day. Before reading, preview the selection and make connections by thinking of situations in which you or others you know have heard or used the word gullible. While reading, notice how the writer defines gullibility through examples, reasons, and an explanation of factors that contribute to gullibility.

1Homo sapiens is probably an intrinsically gullible species. We owe our evolutionary success to culture, our unique ability to receive, trust and act on stories we get from others, and so accumulate a shared view about the world. In a way, trusting others is second nature. But not everything we hear from others is useful or even true. There are countless ways people have been misled, fooled and hoaxed, sometimes for fun, but more often, for profit or for political gain. Although sharing social knowledge is the foundation of our evolutionary success, in this age of unlimited and unfiltered information, it is becoming a major challenge to decide what to believe, and what to reject.

What Is Gullibility?

2Gullibility is a tendency to be easily manipulated into believing something is true when it isn’t. Credulity is closely related, a willingness to believe unlikely propositions with no evidence behind them. April Fool’s tricks often work because they exploit our baseline inclination to accept direct communications from others as reliable and trustworthy. When a colleague tells you the boss wants to see you immediately, the first, automatic reaction is to believe them. Once we realize this is April 1, a more critical mindset will increase our threshold of acceptance and triggers more thorough processing. Rejection is then likely unless there is strong corroborating evidence.

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Classic April Fool’s Day joke: the BBC’s 1957 spaghetti harvest

Do We Want to Be Gullible?

3So it seems that gullibility and credulity have to do with how we think and the level of proof we need before accepting information as valid. In most face-to-face situations, the threshold of acceptance is fairly low, as humans operate with a “positivity bias” and assume most people act in an honest and genuine way.

4Of course, this is not always so. Others often want to manipulate us for their own purposes. For instance, we often prefer bare-faced flattery to truth, even when we know the communicator’s ulterior motives. When the information is personally rewarding, we actually want to be gullible. We are also subject to a marked “confirmation bias.” This is when we tend to prefer dubious information that supports our pre-existing attitudes and are more inclined to reject valid information that challenges our beliefs. A similar bias exists when passing on doubtful information to others. We tend to reshape rumor and gossip in ways that support our pre-existing stereotypes and expectations (Rosnow and Foster). Inconsistent details—even if true—are often changed or even omitted.

Gullibility in Public Life

5Gullibility and credulity have become important issues as a deluge of raw, unverified information is readily available online. Consider how fake news during the U.S. presidential election influenced voters (Menn). Stories that generate fear and promote a narrative of corrupt politicians and media can be particularly effective. In Europe, Russian websites “reported” numerous false stories designed to undermine the E.U. and to bolster support for extreme right-wing parties (Janda and Sharibzhanov).

6Credulity and gullibility are also of great commercial importance when it comes to marketing and advertising (Burkeman). For example, much brand name advertising subtly appeals to our need for social status and identity. Yet, we obviously cannot acquire real status or identity just by buying an advertised product. Even water, a freely available colorless, tasteless, transparent liquid is now successfully marketed as an identity product, a multi-billion dollar industry built mostly on misleading advertising and gullibility (Elmhirst). Dietary supplements are another large industry exploiting gullibility (Schwartz).

Explaining Gullibility

7Gullibility occurs because we have evolved to deal with information using two fundamentally different systems, according to Nobel Prize winning psychologist Daniel Kahneman. System 1 thinking is fast, automatic, intuitive, uncritical and promotes accepting anecdotal and personal information as true. This was a useful and adaptive processing strategy in our ancestral environment of small, face-to-face groups, where trust was based on life-long relationships. However, this kind of thinking can be dangerous in the anonymous online world.

8System 2 thinking is a much more recent human achievement; it is slow, analytical, rational and effortful, and leads to the thorough evaluation of incoming information. While all humans use both intuitive and analytic thinking, system 2 thinking is the method of science, and is the best available antidote to gullibility. So, education tends to reduce gullibility (Preece and Baxter), and those who receive scientific training in critical, skeptical thinking also tend to be less gullible and less easily manipulated.

9Differences in trust can also influence gullibility. This may be related to early childhood experiences, with the idea that trust in infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation the world will be a good and pleasant place to live (“Trust”).

Does Our Mood Make a Difference?

10Many factors, including mood, influence how we process incoming information. Positive mood facilitates system 1 thinking and gullibility, while negative mood often recruits more careful, cautious and attentive processing. In several experiments we found that people in a negative mood were less gullible and more skeptical, and were actually better at detecting deception (Forgas and East).

11Although detecting deception was always important to human groups to identify cheats and freeloaders, it has become much more critical in our modern age. Given unlimited access to dubious information, combating gullibility and promoting critical thinking is one of the major challenges of our age. There are worrying signs that lack of education, poor ability to think rationally, and the massive amount of doubtful and manipulative information we encounter may combine to threaten our impressive cultural achievements.

Links

✵ Burkeman, Oliver. “Exploiting Gullible People Is a Modern Form of Mining.” The Guardian, 7 Aug. 2015, www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/aug/07/exploiting-gullible-people-modern-mining.

✵ Elmhirst, Sophie. “Liquid Assets: How the Business of Bottled Water Went Mad.” The Guardian, 6 Oct. 2016, www.theguardian.com/business/2016/oct/06/liquid-assets-how-business-bottled-water-went-mad.

✵ Forgas, Joseph P., and Rebekah East. “On Being Happy and Gullible: Mood Effects on Skepticism and the Detection of Deception.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 44, no. 5 (2008), pp. 1362—67, doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.04.010.

✵ Janda, Jakub, and Ilyas Sharibzhanov. “Six Outrageous Lies Russian Disinformation Peddled about Europe in 2016.” Atlantic Council, 8 Feb. 2017, www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/ukrainealert/six-outrageous-lies-russian-disinformation-peddled-about-europe-in-2016.

✵ Menn, Joseph. “U.S. Government Loses to Russia’s Disinformation Campaign: Advisers.” Reuters, 20 Dec. 2016, www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-russia-disinformation-analysis-idUSKBN1492PA.

✵ Preece, Peter F. W., and John H. Baxter. “Scepticism and Gullibility: The Superstitious and Pseudo-scientific Beliefs of Secondary School Students.” International Journal of Science Education, 16 July 2010, doi.org/10.1080/09500690050166724.

✵ Rosnow, Ralph L., and Eric K. Foster. “Rumor and Gossip Research.” American Psychological Association, Psychological Science Agenda, “Science Brief,” April 2005, www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2005/04/gossip.

✵ Schwartz, Larry. “Five Over-the-Counter Meds You Likely Use that Just Don’t Work.” AlterNet, www.alternet.org/2014/06/5-over-counter-meds-you-likely-use-just-dont-work.

✵ “Trust: The Development of Trust.” Marriage and Family Encyclopedia, Net Industries, 2019, family.jrank.org/pages/1713/Trust-Development-Trust.html.

EXERCISE 17.4

DRAWING A GRAPHIC ORGANIZER

Using Graphic Organizer 17.1 or 17.2 as a basis, draw a graphic organizer for “Freegans: They Live Off What We Throw Away.”

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GRAPHIC ORGANIZER 17.2 The Structure of “Why are Some People More Gullible Than Others?”

Title: "Why Are Some People More Gullible Than Others?” Introduction: Background information, People evolved as trusting, which makes us vulnerable. Thesis, The ways we receive information today make it challenging for people to know what to believe and what not to believe. Body: Gullibility means being easily manipulated falsehoods, while credulity means believing something despite a lack of supporting evidence. Humans tend to believe others when interacting face to face. They may want to be gullible when it is to their advantage, fits the way they think, or suits their expectations and stereotypes. Gullibility and credulity are exploited in politics, marketing, and advertising. The two systems by which humans process information help explain why gullibility occurs. System 1 thinking is intuitive and uncritical and promotes gullibility; System 2 thinking is analytical, critical, and challenging; it can reduce gullibility. Education also reduces gullibility. Early childhood experiences are also a factor. Mood influences how humans process information. Conclusion: Given the deluge of questionable information swamping us, reducing gullibility and credulity is crucial to protecting human cultural achievements. The process from title to conclusion leads through introduction and body respectively.

HOW WRITERS READ

DEFINITION

THE READING PROCESS

STRATEGIES

BEFORE READING

Preview the essay to get an overview of its content and organization.

Make connections by thinking about what the term being defined means and how you would use it.

AFTER READING

Analyze and evaluate the reading by answering the following questions:

✵ Does the writer effectively distinguish the term from other similar terms? (Give specific examples.)

✵ Is each characteristic understandable and distinct (no overlap with other characteristics)?

✵ Do the characteristics cover all situations and uses of the term? Is the term defined completely?

✵ Is each characteristic presented accurately and in a way that is consistent with what you already know about the term and in a fair and reasonable way?

✵ Does the author use language that has strong connotations or use language to hide or mislead? Does the definition seem to reflect bias?

EXERCISE 17.5

READING CRITICALLY

Apply the questions in the “How Writers Read” box above to the selection “Why Are Some People More Gullible Than Others?”

Integrate Definition into an Essay

Including standard or extended definitions in writing that is based on other patterns of development is common. For example, you may need to include a definition in a response to an essay exam question. Definitions should also be included when terms are likely to be unfamiliar to the reader or when terms may be understood differently than intended. The following kinds of terms usually require definition:

Judgmental or controversial terms. Define terms that imply a judgment or that may be controversial. If you describe a policy as “fiscally unsound,” for example, make clear whether you mean “spending more money than we earn,” “paying an interest rate that is too high,” or something else.

Technical terms. When writing for a general audience, define specialized terms that readers may find unfamiliar. In law, for example, you may need to define terms like writ, deposition, hearing, and plea for a general audience.

Abstract terms. Terms that refer to ideas or concepts, such as loyalty, heroism, and conformity, may need to be defined because they can seem vague or mean different things to different people.

In general, if you are not sure whether a term needs a definition, include one.

You may choose to provide your definition in a separate sentence or section, or you can incorporate a brief definition or synonym into a sentence, using commas, dashes, or parentheses to set off the definition, as in the following examples.

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Example 1 reads, “Implicit memory, or the nonconscious retention of information about prior experiences, is important in eyewitness accounts of crimes.” In the above sentence, "Implicit memory" is labeled as the term, and "nonconscious retention of information about prior experiences" is labeled as the definition. Example 2 reads, “Empathy (em dash) a shared feeling of joy for people who are happy or distress for people who are in pain (em dash) explains the success of many popular films.” In the above sentence, "Empathy" is labeled as the term, and "a shared feeling of joy for people who are happy or distress for people who are in pain" is labeled as the definition.

PREWRITING DRAFTING REVISING EDITING & PROOFREADING

A Guided Writing Assignment*

EXTENDED DEFINITION

The following guide will lead you through the process of writing an extended definition essay. Although the assignment focuses on definition, you will need to integrate one or more other patterns of development in order to develop your essay.

· * The writing process is recursive; that is, you may find yourself revising as you draft or prewriting as you revise. This is especially true when writing on a computer. Your writing process may also differ from project to project and from that of your classmates.

Your Essay Assignment

Write an extended definition essay on a term, activity, phenomenon, or object. You may choose something you are learning about, something you know well already, or something you or your fellow students are likely to be interested in. The following are some options:

✵ a key concept from an introductory psychology, sociology, or economics course, such as ethnocentrism, diaspora, or monopoly capitalism

✵ a type of music, such as indie rock, free jazz, or hip hop

✵ an inappropriate behavior, such as distracted driving or stalking

✵ a type of television show, such as a situation comedy, game show, or reality TV show

✵ an unusual sport or leisure activity, such as curling or spelunking

PREWRITING

1 Select a topic from the list above, or create one of your own.

Ask yourself these questions when choosing a topic:

✵ What do I already know about the topic? How much research will I have time to do?

✵ How much do my readers (other students at my college or university) already know about the topic?

✵ Will my readers be interested in the topic already, or will I need to create interest?

Collaborate: In small groups, take turns having other students tell you what they think your term means.

2 Narrow your topic to a more specific term to explore in your essay.

Use the following guidelines to narrow your general topic:

1. Start general. Use branching or clustering to come up with specific types of your general topic.

Example:

Celebrity is probably too broad a topic for a brief essay, but the topic could be narrowed to a particular type of celebrity, such as a sports celebrity, a Hollywood celebrity, a local celebrity, or a political celebrity.

2. Start specific. Think of a specific example of your topic and use that example as the focus of your definition essay.

Example:

You might choose Tom Brady or Serena Williams and use that person to identify the characteristics defining “sports celebrity.”

3 Consider your purpose, audience, and point of view.

✵ If you were writing an essay that defines search engines, your purpose might be to express your frustration or success with using them to locate information, inform readers about the alternatives to Google, or persuade readers that Bing or Dogpile is superior to all others.

✵ What does my audience already know? What does the audience need to know to understand/accept my definition?

✵ What point of view best suits my purpose and audience? Most definition essays are written in the third person (he, she, it, they). First person (I, we) or second person (you) may be appropriate in informal contexts if you or your readers have personal knowledge of or experience with the topic.

4 Identify distinguishing characteristics and supporting details.

Try one or more of the following:

1. Discuss the term with a classmate, making notes as you talk.

2. Brainstorm a list of (a) words that describe your term, (b) people and things that might serve as examples of the term, and (c) everything a person would need to know to understand the term.

3. Observe a person who is associated with the term or who performs some aspect of it. Take notes on your observations.

4. Look up the term’s etymology, or origin, in the Oxford English Dictionary, A Dictionary of American English, or A Dictionary of Americanisms, all of which are available in the reference section of your library or an online database it subscribes to. Take notes; the word’s etymology will give you some of its characteristics and details, and it might give you ideas on how to organize your essay.

5. Think of incidents or situations that reveal the meaning of the term.

6. Think of similar and different terms with which your reader is likely to be more familiar.

7. Do a Google search on your term. Visit three or four Web sites and take notes on what you discover. Keep track of your sources, so you can cite them later.

5 Generate supporting details.

Use the other patterns of development:

1. Narration: Think of incidents or situations that reveal the meaning of the term.

2. Description: Observe a person who is associated with the term and take notes on what that person looks like, sounds like, and so forth.

3. Illustration: Brainstorm a list of examples.

4. Comparison and contrast: Think of similar and different terms with which you can contrast it.

DRAFTING

6 Draft your thesis statement.

Your thesis should

1. include a brief definition (including the class to which the term belongs and its key distinguishing characteristics)

2. convey why your extended definition might be useful, interesting, or important to readers

Notice how a weak thesis (in this case, a barebones definition) can be revised to reveal the writer’s main point.

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The original statement reads, "Phishing is a fraudulent practice of sending seemingly legitimate emails to obtain personal information." Here, the words “is a” are crossed out and replaced by the word “the” and the text “is rampant and action is needed to control it” is added after the word “information.” The revised statement reads, "Phishing, the fraudulent practice of sending seemingly legitimate emails to obtain personal information is rampant and action is needed to control it."

Collaboration. In small groups, take turns reading your thesis aloud. Have classmates try to identify the following:

✵ the term, the class to which it belongs, and its distinguishing characteristics

✵ the writer’s main point

Consider revising if

✵ the class is overly general

✵ the distinguishing characteristics lack specificity or are too limited

✵ group members cannot identify the main point

7 Choose a method of organization.

If you use one main supporting pattern, use the graphic organizers in the related chapter to organize your essay. If you use several patterns of development, use graphic organizers to try out several organizations, and then pick the most logical order.

8 Draft your extended definition essay.

Use the following guidelines to draft your essay:

✵ The introduction should introduce the term, provide any background information readers will need, and include your thesis. When introducing your term, it may be helpful to explain what the term is not as well as what it is or include a brief history of how your term has been used. But whatever you include, be sure you convey why your term is worth reading about.

✵ Each body paragraph should use one or more patterns of development (narration, description, or comparison and contrast, for example) to explain one of the term’s distinguishing features. Be sure to include enough details for readers to understand each characteristic. Use transitions (such as another, also, or in addition) to guide readers as you move from characteristic to characteristic.

The conclusion should bring your essay to a satisfying close, revisiting your thesis and elaborating on why understanding the term is useful, interesting, or important.

REVISING

9 Evaluate your draft and revise as necessary.

Use Figure 17.1, “Flowchart for Revising an Extended Definition Essay,” to guide your evaluation and revision:

1. Avoid the awkward expressions is when or is where in defining your term. Instead, name the class to which the term belongs.Image

The original sentence reads, "Early bird specials is when restaurants offer reduced-price dinners late in the afternoon and early in the evening." Here, the words “is when” are crossed out and replaced by “are reduced-priced dinners offered in.” The words “offer reduced-price dinners” in the original sentence are removed. The revised sentence reads, "Early bird specials are reduced-priced dinners offered in restaurants late in the afternoon and early in the evening."

2. Make sure subjects and verbs agree in number. When two subjects are joined by and, the verb should be plural.Image

The original sentence reads, "Taken together, the military and Medicare costs U S. taxpayers an enormous amount of money." Here, the word “costs” is crossed out and replaced by “cost.” The revised sentence reads, "Taken together, the military and Medicare cost U S. taxpayers an enormous amount of money."

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FIGURE 17.1 Flowchart for Revising an Extended Definition Essay

The flowchart is organized under two columns, Questions and Revision strategies. Question 1 reads, "Highlight your thesis statement. Does it include a brief definition of the term? Does it indicate why your extended definition is useful, interesting, or important?" If yes, proceed to Question 2. If no, use the following revision strategies represented in bulleted points. Identify the class and distinguishing characteristics of your term, and incorporate a standard definition into your thesis. Ask yourself, Why is this definition worth reading about? Add your answer to your thesis. Question 2 reads, "Place checkmarks beside the distinguishing characteristics of your definition. Do they make your term distinct from similar terms? Is each characteristic true in all cases?" If yes, proceed to Question 3. If no, use the following revision strategies represented in bulleted points. Do additional research or prewriting to discover more characteristics and details you can add to the definition. Eliminate characteristics and details that limit the definition too much. Question 3 reads, "Write the name of the pattern(s) of development you used in your essay. Does each clearly connect your details and help explain the distinguishing characteristics of your term?" If yes, proceed to Question 4. If no, use the following revision strategy represented in bulleted point. Review the list of patterns on pages 0 0 0 to 0 0 0 and consider substituting or adding one or more of them to clarify your definition. Question 4 reads, "[Bracket] the sections where you use negation or address misconceptions. Does each section eliminate possible misunderstandings? Are other misunderstandings possible?" If yes, proceed to Question 5. If no, use the following revision strategies represented in bulleted points. Revise your explanation of what your term is not. Add facts or expert opinion to correct readers’ mistaken notions about the term. The flowchart is organized under two columns, Questions and Revision strategies. Question 5 reads, "Reread your supporting paragraphs. Does each one have a clear topic sentence that focuses on a particular characteristic? Is each paragraph well developed?" If yes, proceed to Question 6. If no, use the following revision strategies represented in bulleted points. Consider combining paragraphs that cover the same characteristic or splitting paragraphs that cover more than one. Add or revise topic sentences and supporting details that focus on the characteristic. Question 6 reads, "Reread your introduction and conclusion. Does the introduction provide necessary background information and hint at the point that will make your definition worth reading? Does your conclusion bring the essay to a satisfying close?" If no, use the following revision strategies represented in bulleted points. Add background information that sets a context for the term you are defining and suggests the point you are making about the term. Revise your conclusion so that it lends closure, possibly by returning to the point you are making about the term.

EDITING & PROOFREADING

10 Edit and proofread your essay.

Refer to Chapter 9 for help with

editing sentences to avoid wordiness, making your verb choices strong and active, and making your sentences clear, varied, and parallel

editing words for tone and diction, connotation, and concrete and specific language

Pay particular attention to the following:

✵ When two nouns are joined by or, the verb should agree with the noun closest to it.Image

The original sentence reads, "For most birds, the markings or wing span are easily observed with a pair of good binoculars." Here, “are” is crossed out and replaced with “is.” The revised sentence reads, “For most birds, the markings or wing span is easily observed with a pair of good binoculars.”

✵ When the subject and verb are separated by a prepositional phrase, the verb should agree with the subject of the sentence, not with the noun in the phrase.Image

The original sentence reads, "The features of a hot-air balloon is best learned by studying the attached diagram." Here, “is” is crossed out and replaced with “are.” The revised sentence reads, “The features of a hot-air balloon are best learned by studying the attached diagram.”

Readings: Extended Definition in Action

STUDENTS WRITE

Guerrilla Street Art: A New Use of Public Space

Kate Atkinson

Title: Identifies subject and creates interest

Kate Atkinson wrote the following essay for an assignment to write an extended definition of a specialized term related to one of her interests. Atkinson decided to write about guerrilla street art. As you read, note how Atkinson uses other patterns of development — such as description and illustration — to define guerrilla street art as a nontraditional art form growing in popularity.

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Paragraph 1 reads, "Guerrilla street art is everywhere, if you look for it. There are countless examples in the small college town where I grew up, where the dense population of college students and artists breeds creativity. Just around the corner from my school, stickers litter sign posts, colorful graffiti is scrawled on exposed brick walls, homemade posters advertise local bands at the bus stop, and a cheerful Dr. Seuss character is stenciled on the sidewalk. These small works of art can easily go unnoticed, but they bring an unexpected vibrancy to the city and raise the controversial question of what constitutes art. By taking art out of its traditional context, guerrilla street artists use public space to create controversy and intrigue while at the same time making art free and accessible to a broad audience." The corresponding annotations read, "Introduction: Provides background information on guerrilla street art and explains by example what it is" and “Distinguishing characteristics: thesis statement that offers a brief definition and suggests the value and importance of guerrilla street art.” The words, “guerrilla street art,” are highlighted. The thesis statement “By taking art out of its traditional context, guerrilla street artists use public space to create controversy and intrigue while at the same time making art free and accessible to a broad audience,” is double underlined. Paragraph 2 reads, "Common forms used by street artists today include graffiti, stenciling, poster art, sticker art, scratchiti, and yarn bombing. Graffiti, the most prevalent form of guerrilla street art, is unauthorized writing or drawing on a public surface. It dates back centuries (see Figure 1), and artists have been known to use chalk, markers, paint, and even carving tools to inscribe their messages on public property. Graffiti is so common that it is difficult to travel far in most urban settings without coming across a word or image scrawled in spray paint on a public surface. Stenciling is simply a form of graffiti in which artists use precut stencils to guide their work. Posters and stickers are popular because they can be easily" (The paragraph continues on the next page.) The corresponding annotation reads, “Distinguishing characteristics: Presents first distinguishing characteristic and lists five examples. Topic sentence is supported by rest of paragraph (em dash) a pattern followed in next three paragraphs.” The first distinguishing characteristic, “Common forms,” is highlighted. The topic sentence, “Common forms used by street artists today include graffiti, stenciling, poster art, sticker art, scratchiti, and yarn bombing,” is double underlined.

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A photo of a wall in Pompei covered with graffiti. The graffiti has been preserved by a volcanic explosion from Vesuvius. The first paragraph is a continuation of paragraph 2, from the previous page. It reads, "mass-produced and quickly applied. Posters are usually applied with a technique called 'wheat pasting' (em dash) using a vegetable-based adhesive to attach posters to walls. Artists apply the clear paste with a roller in a thin layer to both sides of the poster, making it weather-proof and durable. Scratchiti is found almost everywhere there is glass. It became popular in the 1990s after New York City’s Metropolitan Transportation Authority installed easily scratched, shatter-resistant glass in all its subway cars and clamped down on traditional aerosol graffiti. Scratchiti is popular because it is so easy to produce (em dash) all it requires is a knife, fingernail file, or even a key. But it is looked down upon as an art form, since doing more than scratching your initials or street name into the glass is difficult in this medium ('Scratchiti'). A less common street-art technique is 'yarn bombing,' in which craft artists knit colorful sheaths of wool and acrylic and wrap them around telephone poles and park benches. The finished pieces are eye-catching and unusual but not permanent or damaging to public property." The corresponding annotations read, “Definition: Includes brief sub-definitions of wheat pasting, yarn bombing,” “Illustration: Offers examples of types of guerrilla street art," and “Support: Cites source in text.” Paragraph 3 reads, "The various motives behind guerrilla street art are as diverse as the artwork itself and range from social and political activism to self-promotion of the artist. Artists embellish telephone poles with colorful yarn and train carriages with ornate murals as a way to reclaim and beautify public space. Others use public space as a billboard to" (The paragraph continues on the next page.) The corresponding annotation reads, "Distinguishing characteristic: Discusses motives of artists and offers examples." The term, “motives,” is highlighted.

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The first paragraph is a continuation of paragraph 3, from the previous page. It reads, "advocate for a cause. An example of street art as political activism is artist Shepard Fairey’s iconic image of Barack Obama (Wortham). The simple design combines a striking red, white, and blue portrait of Obama with the word 'Hope.' With the approval of Obama’s 2008 campaign team, Fairey and his team dispersed and pasted, stenciled, or tacked the image onto countless public surfaces across the United States until it became an important facet of the campaign. The picture itself is powerful, but what made it even more effective as a campaign tool was the distribution of the image by supporters and the youth appeal that it garnered as a result. " The corresponding annotation reads, "Illustration: Provides example of political activism and documents source." Paragraph 4 reads, "Street art has many appeals. It is an easy way for new artists to gain notoriety, and anyone with a spray can and a flair for creativity can partake. A tag, which is an artist’s signature or symbol, is the most common type of graffiti. Before the Obama campaign, Shepard Fairey gained international acclaim for a sticker depicting wrestler Andre the Giant and the word 'Obey.' The image soon became his tag and can be found in almost all of his work, making it instantly recognizable. The anonymity of street art also gives artists the freedom to express themselves without fearing the judgment of their peers. At worst, this freedom can result in crude or offensive inscriptions on public property; but at best, it can produce bold, striking statements. Guerrilla street art is contemporary and can be enjoyed without a visit to a museum. It is free and encourages the belief that art should be accessible and available to everyone. It is also a movement that anyone can take part in and that challenges traditional standards of art." The corresponding annotation reads, "Discusses appeal of street art and gives examples." The term “appeals,” is highlighted. Two annotations read, "Definition: Includes brief sub-definition of ’tag’" and “Illustration: Provides example of using ’tag’ to gain fame; no source needed because fact widely reported." Paragraph 5 reads, "Due to the illicit nature of their art, the street artist community is shrouded in secrecy. In the film Exit through the Gift Shop, a documentary by notorious British street artist Banksy, hooded figures in ski masks are shown scaling buildings and perched precariously on ledges, armed with spray cans and buckets of industrial paste and always on the lookout for the police. Despite his celebrity, Banksy has managed to keep his identity anonymous, and his face is never shown in the film. It is common for street artists to be arrested for trespassing and vandalism, and the risk and intentional disobedience involved in street art adds to its appeal, especially among young people." The corresponding annotation reads, “Distinguishing characteristic: Discusses secrecy of artists." The phrase, “shrouded in secrecy,” is highlighted. The corresponding annotation reads, “Illustration: Uses Banksy as example of secrecy."

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The first paragraph is a continuation of paragraph 6, from the previous page. It reads, "Guerrilla street art has blossomed from an underground movement to a cultural phenomenon. At the very least, it brings up the question of what constitutes art and whether public space is an appropriate place for it. Although it does not adhere to all traditional standards of art, guerrilla street art provokes thought, brings beauty and intrigue to urban spaces that would otherwise go unnoticed, and is a tool for artists to exercise freedom of speech and expression." The corresponding annotation reads, “Conclusion: Comments on street art movement as cultural experience; explains its value." This is followed by a section titled, "Works Cited." The section lists the following entries. Exit through the Gift Shop (Italicized). Directed by Banksy, performances by Banksy and Thierry Guetta, Paranoid Pictures, 2010. “Scratchiti.” The Cyber Bench (em dash) Documenting New York City Graffiti (Italicized), @ 149 s t, 2003, w w w dot at 149 s t dot com slash scratch dot h t m l. Wortham, Jenna. “’Obey’ Street Artist Churns Out ’Hope’ for Obama.” Wired (Italicized), 21 September 2010, w w w dot wired dot com slash 2008 slash 09 slash poster hyphen boy hyphen shep slash.

Analyzing the Writer’s Technique

1. Definition How does Atkinson define guerrilla art?

2. Effectiveness Evaluate the effectiveness of the title, introduction, and conclusion.

3. Terms Locate one of each of these in the essay — a judgment term, a technical term, an abstract term, and a controversial term.

Thinking Critically about Definition

1. Bias Atkinson is not neutral on the subject of this essay. Explain her bias. How does this affect the essay?

2. Sources What other types of sources could Atkinson have included to make her essay more comprehensive? What do her two sources reveal about her attitude about the topic?

3. Connotation Atkinson uses words such as vibrancy (para. 1) and blossomed (6) to describe guerrilla street art. What kind of connotation do these words have, and how do the connotations play into the overall tone of the essay?

4. Euphemism Is “guerrilla street art” a euphemism? Why or why not? If so, how would the same idea be expressed in more direct language?

5. Evaluation Atkinson limits her definition of guerrilla street art to items that have no commercial or financial purpose. She does not mention posters promoting businesses or paid entertainment, signs and banners used for fund-raising by organizations, and advertising flyers, even though these items also are often displayed in the same places as those she does discuss and with the same lack of legal permission. How are these items similar to and different from the kinds of items she includes in her definition?

Responding to the Reading

1. Reaction Have you ever created any graffiti? Discuss how doing it made you feel. If you have never created any, consider what situations, if any, might encourage you to do so.

2. Discussion Discuss the value of work like Shepard Fairey’s, which takes political messages and conveys them in street art. Why is this strategy effective? How does it reach a broader audience than other methods of communication?

3. Journal Write a journal entry discussing whether guerrilla art adds value to public space or devalues the space. How should the answer to this question be determined?

READING

DEFINITION COMBINED WITH OTHER PATTERNS READING

Dating on the Autism Spectrum

Emily Shire

Emily Shire has published articles in a number of publications, including Slate, The Week, the New York Times, and the Daily Beast. She is currently pursuing a law degree at Yale Law School. This essay appeared in The Atlantic in 2013. Before reading, preview the selection and make connections by thinking about what you already know about autism. While reading, notice how Shire uses examples and quotations from personal interviews to make her extended definition vivid and convincing.

JUST-IN-TIME TIP

Identifying Types of Supporting Information

Shire uses numerous patterns to support her thesis. As you read, identify patterns other than definition, and highlight examples of each. Doing so will enable you to remember more of what you read and more effectively evaluate whether the author adequately supports her thesis. To organize your analysis, use a chart like this:

Pattern of Development

Examples

Process Analysis

Flirting (12)

Comparison and Contrast


Illustration


Some patterns you may see are listed, and one example has been done for you.

1The way to Paulette Penzvalto’s heart is through her Outlook calendar. “Honestly, if you want to be romantic with me, send an email through Outlook and give me all the possible dates, locations, and times, so that I can prepare,” she said.

2The former Miss America contestant and Juilliard-trained opera singer knew she had a different conception of romance than her previous boyfriends had and, for that matter, everyone else. “People tend to think of romance as spur of the moment and exciting,” she told me. “I think of romance as things that make sense and are logical.” However, she didn’t know why until this year when, at the age of 31, she was diagnosed with autism.

3The aspects of autism that can make everyday life challenging — reading social cues, understanding another’s perspectives, making small talk and exchanging niceties — can be seriously magnified when it comes to dating. The American Psychiatric Association defines autism as a spectrum disorder: Some people do not speak at all and have disabilities that make traditional relationships (let alone romantic ones) largely unfeasible, but there are also many who are on the “high-functioning” end and do have a clear desire for dating and romance.

4Autism diagnosis rates have increased dramatically over the last two decades (the latest CDC reports show one in 50 children are diagnosed), and while much attention has been paid to early-intervention programs for toddlers and younger children, teens and adults with autism have largely been overlooked — especially when it comes to building romantic relationships.

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Percentage of Children (Aged 6—17) Whose Parent(s) Report a Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Data from CDC/NCHS, National Survey of Children’s Health, 2007 and 2001—2012.

The vertical axis represents percentage of children and ranges from 0 to 3.5 in increments of 0.5. The horizontal axis represents age in years. It shows 6 to 17, 6 to 9, 14 to 17, boys 6 to 17, and girls 6 to 17. The data from the graph are as follows. 6 to 17: 2007, 1.16 percentage; 2011 to 2012, 2.00 percentage. 6 to 9: 2007, 1.31 percentage; 2011 to 2012, 1.82 percentage. 10 to 13: 2007, 1.45 percentage; 2011 to 2012, 2.39 percentage. 14 to 17: 2007, 0.73 percentage; 2011 to 2012, 1.78 percentage. Boys, 6 to 17: 2007, 1.80 percentage; 2011 to 2012, 3.23 percentage. Girls, 6 to 17: 2007, 0.49 percentage; 2011 to 2012, 0.70 percentage.

5Certain characteristics associated with the autism spectrum inherently go against typical dating norms. For example, while a “neuro-typical” person might think a bar is a great place for a first date, it could be one of the worst spots for someone on the spectrum. Dorsey Massey, a social worker who helps run dating and social programs for adults with various intellectual disabilities, explained, “If it’s a loud, crowded place, an individual on the spectrum may be uncomfortable or distracted.” Sensory issues may also make certain lights and noises especially unpleasant.

6Seemingly basic, non-sexual touching may be an issue, as well. “It may give them discomfort for someone to kiss them lightly or hold their hand,” Massey said. “They need pressure, and that’s not typically what you think of with tender, romantic love.”

7Perhaps because so much of their behavior runs counter to mainstream conceptions of how to express affection and love, people with autism are rarely considered in romantic contexts. A constant complaint among the individuals interviewed for this piece is the misconception that people with autism can’t express love or care for others. “I think a lot of times someone will go out on a date with someone on the spectrum and think they’re a robot,” said Alex Plank, founder of WrongPlanet.net, a popular online autism community. “It’s hard to read us if we don’t explicitly say what we’re feeling, but all the feelings are there.”

8In fact, people with autism may have greater emotional capacities. “Studies have shown that people with autism can have feelings that are stronger and deeper than those without autism,” said John Elder Robison, bestselling author of Look Me in the Eyes and autism advocate. “Yet those feelings may be invisible to outsiders because we don’t show them. Because we don’t show them or the expected response, people make the wrong assumption about our depth of feeling about other people.”

9It’s not that individuals on the spectrum do not have the same desire for love; they just may not know how to find it. Dr. Elizabeth Laugeson, an Assistant Clinical Professor at UCLA said, “If you asked a person with autism if they wanted a romantic relationship, they would probably say yes, but they would probably also say they don’t know how to.”

10Partially from the emphasis on early intervention treatments, there’s a dearth of dating skills programs, or, rather, effective ones for people on the spectrum. “Early intervention can significantly improve the outcome, but kids grow up, and we don’t have the proper services,” said Laugeson, who serves as director of UCLA PEERS, a program that teaches social, including romantic, interaction skills to teens and young adults on the spectrum.

11Central to PEERS is the promotion of “ecologically valid” social skills, traits humans have been shown to exhibit in reality, rather than what we think we’re “supposed” to do. “We know people with autism think very concretely,” said Laugeson. “Social skills can be abstract behavior that’s difficult to describe, but we try to break it into concrete steps.”

12For example, PEERS will take the seemingly mundane, but actually complex act of flirting and translate it into a step-by-step lesson. “First, a couple notices each other across the room. They make eye contact and look away, and they look again and they look away,” said Laugeson. “The look away makes it known you’re safe, but the common error someone with autism can make is to stare, which can seem predatory and scare a person.” People with autism are also specifically instructed how to smile and for how long, since “another common mistake is to smile really big rather than giving a slight smile,” said Laugeson. “A big smile can also be frightening.”

13Neuro-typical people often take flirting for granted as a fairly organic, coy, and even fun back-and-forth, but for someone with autism, it is really a complex, nonsensical interaction. “Flirting still doesn’t make sense to me. It seems like a waste of time,” said Plank, who worked on a video with Laugeson to teach his Wrong-Planet community members how to flirt. “If you think about it logically, you say things you wouldn’t normally say, so it’s harder. There are a whole other set of things you have to deal with.”

14While he didn’t have PEERS to guide him, in college, Plank studied guys who were always successful at picking up girls and started mimicking their behaviors. He quickly realized acting confident was the key to dating success, especially if you’re a man.

15However, maintaining that confidence may be the hardest part of dating for someone on the spectrum, because of their difficulty processing social cues from others. “We will constantly not be able to read whether someone is interested, so you can have an insecurity about whether the person you’re dating likes you,” said Plank.

16In heterosexual courtships where men are still often expected to pursue women, males with autism are at a distinct disadvantage to their female counterpart. “For guys on the spectrum it’s a one-way thing,” said Robison. “We can be interested, but have no way to tell if they’re interested in us.”

17Some women with autism may ultimately have an edge in the dating world. A common trait of people on the spectrum is being extremely logical and straightforward. A blunt man may repulse women or get a slap in the face; think of how a woman would react if a date told her yes, she did look fat in that dress, or consider the famous 1989 study where a female researcher received positive responses to her request for sex from men on the street 69 to 75 percent of the time compared to her male counterpart who received not a single yes. Women who are forward are prized for it. “Especially if they’re really attractive, neuro-typical guys appreciate when women are blunt,” said Plank.

18While Penzvalto doesn’t necessarily think women with autism have it easier than men, she has noticed that her neuro-typical dates have particularly valued many of her autistic traits. “I’ve found that people who are neuro-typical really appreciate the qualities that people on the spectrum possess: complete honesty and almost an inability to lie,” she said.

19However, both sexes on the spectrum struggle equally with the fear of rejection. Since so much of dating for adults with autism is trial by error, the risk of mistakes, and often embarrassing ones, is high. Jeremy Hamburgh, a dating specialist for people with special needs, including those on the autism spectrum, has noticed how hard his clients take initial failure with dating. “The risk and rewards are very different for people who are neuro-typical,” he said. “The average neuro-typical person can go out and meet ten people, and do well with one, and feel success, but for those with special needs, who have been rejected all their lives, that can really hurt their self-esteem.”

20Plank has witnessed friends on the spectrum too quickly walk away from dating for fear of rejection. “It’s a numbers game in many ways and because people on the spectrum use black-and-white thinking, they think they’re doing something wrong,” he said. “I wish more people on the spectrum knew you need to practice, you need to go out on more dates.”

21Worse, is that people on the spectrum may turn the blame on themselves for not exhibiting neuro-typical norms for dating and romance. While interviewing subjects on the spectrum for his documentary Autism in Love, filmmaker Matt Fuller noticed how, “When something is perceived as inappropriate, and it gets addressed, they will get embarrassed leading to a rabbit hole of self-deprecating thoughts.” And Penzvalto, too, remembers feeling self-conscious and abnormal for her views of dating and romance. “I have struggled in the past with people telling me ’this is how it should be’ and having sort of a crisis of maybe I just don’t get it, maybe I’m wrong,” she said.

22In fact, it was during one of those types of fights in a relationship earlier this year that Penzvalto decided to be evaluated for autism. She realized past boyfriends’ frustrations over her “rigid thinking” and “boundary issue” could be explained by autism, and a subsequent psychological evaluation confirmed it. However, rather than alarmed, she felt relief.

23Perhaps because she had spent so much of her life trying to “act” normal and conform to others’ expectations for romance, knowing she had autism has helped her become more comfortable with dating. It’s a feeling not necessarily shared by all members on the spectrum, but realizing why she saw love and romance the way she does freed her from the pressure of neuro-typical standards. Now, she is following her own heart. “The number one freedom I found in the diagnosis is I don’t need to really give into a partner’s idea of what a relationship should or needs to look like,” she said. “It’s really liberating to know I’ve been living my life a certain way, and it turns out that that’s okay.”

Understanding the Reading

1. Explanation How do the needs of people on the autism spectrum differ from those of “neuro-typical” people (those not on the autism spectrum)?

2. Cause Why do uninformed people believe that an autistic person is incapable of having a romantic relationship?

3. Characteristics What characteristic(s) do autistic women possess that may give them an advantage in dating? How might this (these) characteristic(s) be advantageous?

4. Vocabulary Explain the meaning of each of the following words as it is used in the reading: inherently (para. 5), dearth (10), mundane (12), and predatory (12).

Analyzing the Writer’s Technique

1. Source How does the author’s decision to include a quotation from a former Miss America contestant affect the reader’s response to the article?

2. Thesis Restate Shire’s thesis in your own words. How effective is it as the thesis of an extended definition essay? If you were revising her thesis, how might you change it?

3. Introduction Does the introduction provide all the background information you need to understand the essay? If not, what else should the author have included?

4. Conclusion Is the essay’s conclusion satisfying? Why or why not?

Thinking Critically about Text and Images

1. Connotation What connotation does the word act (para. 23) have? How does the use of quotation marks around it affect your understanding?

2. Tone Describe the tone of the essay. What does it reveal about Shire’s attitude toward people on the autism spectrum?

3. Sources What types of sources does Shire use to support her thesis? What other types of sources might she have used to make her essay more convincing?

4. Objectivity How objective a view of people on the autism spectrum does Shire present? Identify any words, phrases, or examples that seem intended to influence the reader’s emotional response to the article. Does her definition seem euphemistic or incomplete? Support your answers with evidence from the text.

5. Visual Examine the figure in the reading. Do you see any trends? What reasons, besides an actual increase in the number of children with autism spectrum disorder, may account for the apparent increase?

Responding to the Reading

1. Discussion Discuss the challenges flirting, asking someone out, or even joining a conversation present. What “’ecologically valid’ social skills” (para. 11) have you observed or practiced in these contexts? How would you instruct a younger friend or family member in the fine art of asking someone out on a date or joining a conversation among people you don’t know well?

2. Journal Write a journal entry describing a time you (or someone you know) were totally misjudged or your motives were misunderstood.

3. Essay Write an essay defining a perfect date for your classmates.

Working Together

With a small group of fellow students, write a thirty-second public service announcement (PSA) promoting a class in responsible dating to share with the class. Start by naming the class, then brainstorm ideas, and write the PSA.

EXPLORE, RESEARCH, WRITE

In “Dating on the Autism Spectrum,” Emily Shire discusses the challenges and frustrations that individuals on the spectrum experience with dating. Other people have also studied this phenomenon. Some reports about this issue include the following:

✵ “How Does a Person with ASD Date Successfully?” by Maureen Bennie, founder of the Autism Awareness Centre and the mother of two children with autism (30 May 2015)

✵ “Romance 101: Dating for Adults with ASD,” posted by the Center for Autism Research (CAR) and the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia (5 January 2017)

✵ “Ten Things I Wish Everyone Knew about Autism and Romantic Relationships” by Gwen Greenward, a young adult with Asperger’s syndrome who started the Web site Seeing Double to help others understand the world from the point of view of those on the autism spectrum (21 October 2014)

Using your own ideas and one or more of the selections listed here, write an essay that defines a successful dating relationship for individuals on the autism spectrum. Be sure to include at least three characteristics of a successful dating relationship and incorporate at least two quotations (one from two different readings) and cite them correctly at the end of the essay.

The Guided Writing Assignment in this chapter can walk you through the process of writing a definition essay; for help with evaluating sources, see Chapter 21; for help choosing and synthesizing ideas from sources, see Chapter 22; for help with documenting sources, see Chapter 23.

Apply Your Skills: Additional Essay Assignments

Write an extended definition essay on one of the following topics, using what you learned in this chapter. Depending on your topic, you may need to conduct research.

For more on locating and documenting sources, see Part 5.

To Express Your Ideas

Choose a specific audience and write an essay defining and expressing your views on one of the following terms:

1. Parenting

2. Assertiveness

3. Sexual harassment

To Inform Your Reader

4. Write an essay defining a term from a sport, hobby, or form of entertainment for a classmate who is unfamiliar with the term.

5. Write an essay for your instructor defining the characteristics of the “perfect job” you hope to hold after graduation.

6. Write an essay defining an important concept in a field of study, perhaps from one of your other courses. Your audience consists of students not enrolled in the course.

To Persuade Your Reader

“Freegans: They Live Off What We Throw Away” addresses the issue of consumer waste and excess. Write an essay for readers of your local newspaper in which you define one of the terms listed below and demonstrate that the problem is either increasing or decreasing in your community.

7. Racism or ethnic stereotyping

8. Sexual discrimination

9. Age discrimination

Cases Using Definition

10. You are a fifth-grade teacher working on a lesson plan entitled “What Is American Democracy?” How will you limit the term American democracy to define it for your audience? What characteristics and details will you include?

11. Write a press release for a new menu item as part of your job as public relations manager for a restaurant chain. First, choose the new menu item, and then define the item and describe its characteristics using sensory details.

SYNTHESIZING IDEAS

CULTURE

Both “Freegans: They Live Off What We Throw Away” and “Guerrilla Street Art” discuss the activities of a subculture: dumpster divers and graffiti artists.

Analyzing the Readings

1. In what ways does each self subgroup set itself apart from the larger society?

2. Write a journal entry exploring how some subgroups set themselves apart — for example, through dress, behavior, or language.

Essay Idea

Write an essay in which you explore a subgroup of college students, such as student democrats or vegans. Give examples of ways in which certain groups on campus set themselves apart through their language, their activities, or in some other way.