Reading arguments - Reading and writing arguments

Successful college writing, Eighth edition - Kathleen T. McWhorter 2020

Reading arguments
Reading and writing arguments

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19 Reading Arguments

20 Writing Arguments

CHAPTER 19Reading Arguments

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In this chapter you will learn to

✵ recognize the basic parts of an argument

✵ identify three types of claims

✵ understand the key elements of support in an argument: reasons, evidence, emotional appeals, and refutations

✵ identify the structure of an argument

✵ read, analyze, and think critically about arguments

Writing Quick Start

ANALYZE

The photograph on this page was taken on a state university campus in California where students were demonstrating against tuition increases. Although this sign is too small to list their reasons for opposing the increases, what do you think these students might say to support their position? Members of the faculty or administration may feel that the tuition increase is justified. How might they respond to the students’ claims?

WRITE

Draft a paragraph that identifies your position, either for or against tuition increases, and offers reasons that others should accept your position. Be sure to consider what those who take a different view might find convincing.

CONNECT

The paragraph you just wrote is an example of a brief argument. An argument makes a claim and offers reasons and evidence in support of the claim. This chapter will show you how to read, analyze, and evaluate arguments, and in the next chapter you will learn strategies for writing effective argument essays.

Reading an argument effectively involves identifying and understanding the argument’s basic parts and evaluating the effectiveness of each part.

READING ARGUMENTS

IN COLLEGE AND THE WORKPLACE

✵ To prepare for a class discussion in a sociology course, you read and evaluate an essay proposing a solution to the gentrification of cities.

✵ In a mass communication class, your instructor assigns three articles that take different positions on the issue of whether journalists should provide graphic coverage of accidents and other human tragedies. Your instructor asks you to articulate your opinion on this issue.

✵ While working as a purchasing agent for a carpet manufacturer, you are listening to a sales pitch by a sales representative trying to convince you to purchase a new type of plastic wrapping used for shipping carpets.

What Are the Basic Parts of an Argument?

In everyday conversation, an argument can be a heated exchange of ideas between two people. College roommates might argue over who should clean the sink or who left the door unlocked the previous night. Colleagues in a company might argue over policies or procedures. However, there is a difference between an emotional, irrational argument and a rational, effective argument.

An effective argument is a logical, well-thought-out presentation of ideas that makes a claim about an issue and supports that claim with evidence. This does not mean that emotion has no place in an argument. In fact, many sound arguments combine emotion with logic.

Even a casual conversation can make a reasoned argument, as in the following:

Damon:

✵ I’ve been called for jury duty. I don’t want to go. They treat jurors so badly!

Maria:

✵ Why? Everybody is supposed to do it.

Damon:

✵ Have you ever done it? I have. First of all, they force us to serve, whether we want to or not. And then they treat us like criminals. Two years ago I had to sit all day in a hot, crowded room with other jurors while the TV was blaring. I couldn’t read, study, or even think! No wonder people will do anything to get out of it.

Damon is arguing that jurors are treated badly. He offers two reasons to support his claim and uses personal experience to support the second reason (that jurors are treated “like criminals”), which also serves as an emotional appeal.

An effective argument must clearly state an issue, make a claim, and offer support. In many cases an argument also recognizes or refutes (argues against) opposing viewpoints.

Graphic Organizer 19.1 shows the basic components of an argument. Notice that unlike the graphic organizers in Part 3, the model graphic organizer showing the parts of an argument essay does not necessarily reflect the order in which the ideas are presented. Rather, it provides a visual representation of the components of an argument. The arguments you read may address opposing views before presenting reasons and evidence in support of the writer’s claim, for example.

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GRAPHIC ORGANIZER 19.1 The Basic Parts of an Argument Essay

The basic parts include, Title, Introduction, Claim, Body, and Conclusion. Introduction: Issue. Background information. Definition of terms. Claim: Thesis statement (The thesis statement may appear anywhere within the argument.) Body: Reasons and Evidence. Emotional Appeals. Opposing Viewpoints. (1) Reasons and Evidence. It branches further into three: Reason 1, Reason 2, and Reason 3. Each reason is connected to another text box, which includes type of evidence. (2) Emotional Appeals. It branches further into three: Need or value 1, Need or value 2, and Need or value 3. (3) Opposing Viewpoints. It branches further into two: Opposing View 1 and Opposing View 2. Each Opposing view is connected to another text box, which includes Acknowledgement, accommodation, or refutation. Conclusion: Restatement of claim, Final appeal to needs or values, Urge readers to take action. The process from title to conclusion leads through introduction, claim, and body, respectively.

The Issue Is a Controversial Topic

An argument is concerned with an issue — a controversy, a problem, or an idea about which people hold different points of view. In the exchange between Damon and Maria, the issue is “fairness of jury duty.”

The Claim Is the Writer’s Point

The claim is the point the writer tries to prove, usually the writer’s view on the issue. In Damon and Maria’s conversation, the claim is that “jury duty is unfair.” The claim often appears as part of the thesis statement in an argument essay. In some essays, however, it is implied rather than stated directly.

There are three types of claims:

1. Claims of fact are statements that can be proved or verified. Of course, readers are not likely to be interested in arguments about long-established claims of fact, such as how far the moon is from the earth; instead, claims of fact in argument essays focus on facts that are in dispute or not yet well established.

o Example

o Excessive use of the Internet has shortened college students’ attention spans.

2. Claims of value are statements that express an opinion or judgment about whether one thing or idea is better or more desirable than other things or ideas. Issues involving questions of right or wrong, acceptable or unacceptable, often lead to claims of value. Since claims of value are subjective, they cannot be proved definitively.

o Example

o Doctor-assisted suicide is a violation of the Hippocratic oath and therefore should not be legalized.

3. Claims of policy are statements offering one or more solutions to a problem. Often the verbs should, must, or ought appear in the claim. Like claims of value, claims of policy cannot be proved definitively.

o Example

o The motion picture industry must accept greater responsibility for the consequences of violent films.

EXERCISE 19.1

PREDICTING ISSUES AND CLAIMS

For each of the following titles, predict the issue and the claim the essay would make:

1. “The Drugs I Take Are None of Your Business”

2. “Watch That Leer and Stifle That Joke at the Water Cooler”

3. “Crazy in the Streets: A Call for Treatment of Street People”

4. “Penalize the Unwed Dad? Fat Chance”

5. “A Former Smoker Applauds New Laws”

EXERCISE 19.2

WRITING CLAIMS

On your own or with one or two classmates, choose two of the following issues and write two different types of claims for each. For example, if one statement is a claim of value, the other should be a claim of policy or a claim of fact.

1. Legalization or decriminalization of marijuana

2. Stem cell research

3. Socially distant education

4. Protection for endangered species

5. College course requirements

The Support Includes Reasons, Evidence, and Appeals

The support in an argument consists of the ideas and information intended to convince readers that the claim is sound or believable. In Damon and Maria’s conversation, Damon provides two key pieces of support:

1. People are forced to serve.

2. Potential jurors are treated like criminals.

Three common types of support are reasons, evidence, and emotional appeals.

Reasons

A reason is a general statement that backs up a claim. It explains why the writer’s view on an issue is reasonable or correct. However, reasons alone are not sufficient support for an argument. Each reason must be supported by evidence and is sometimes accompanied by emotional appeals.

Evidence

The evidence provided in an argument usually consists of facts, statistics, examples, expert opinion, and observations from personal experience.

Claim

✵ Reading aloud to preschool and kindergarten children improves their chances of success in school.

Facts

✵ First-grade children who were read to as preschoolers learned to read earlier than children who were not read to.

Statistics

✵ A 2010 study at the University of California—Davis found that having children read to shelter animals for 10 weeks improved the children's reading skills by about 30 percent.

Expert Opinion

✵ Pam Allyn, author of over sixty educational publications and well-known childhood literacy advocate, urges parents to read aloud to their preschool children frequently.

Examples

✵ Stories about unfamiliar places or activities increase a child’s vocabulary. For example, reading a story about a farm to a child who lives in a city apartment will acquaint the child with such new terms as barn, silo, and tractor.

Personal Experience

✵ When I read to my three-year-old son, I notice that he points to and tries to repeat words.

Emotional appeals

Emotional appeals evoke the needs or values that readers are likely to share.

Appealing to needs: People have both physiological needs (food and drink, health, shelter, safety, sex) and psychological needs (a sense of belonging or accomplishment, self-esteem, recognition by others, self-fulfillment). Your friends and family, people who write letters to the editor, personnel directors who write job listings, and advertisers all appeal to needs, directly or indirectly.

Appealing to values: A value is a principle or quality that is considered important, worthwhile, or desirable, such as freedom, justice, loyalty, friendship, patriotism, duty, and equality. Arguments often appeal to values that the writer assumes most readers will share.

The public service announcement below appeals to both viewers’ needs and values. The picture of the cute dog appeals to viewers’ needs by evoking the emotional attachment to companion animals (either our own or other people’s pets) that many of us share. The text, “a person is the best thing to happen to a shelter pet,” also appeals to viewers’ need to be needed. The ad appeals to values as well by evoking the principle that caring for others, including animals, is important.

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EXERCISE 19.3

PROVIDING REASONS AND EVIDENCE

Imagine you are the director of a day care center justifying expenditures to the board of directors. Choose two of the following items, and write a paragraph providing reasons for the purchases and offering evidence to show how each item would benefit the children:

1. Tropical fish tank

2. Microwave

3. Read-along books with audio recordings

4. Set of Dr. Seuss books

5. One or more tablet computers

The Refutation Responds to Alternative Viewpoints

A refutation, also called a rebuttal, recognizes and argues against opposing viewpoints. Refutation involves finding a weakness in the opponent’s argument by casting doubt on the opponent’s reasons or by questioning the accuracy, relevance, and sufficiency of the opponent’s evidence.

Suppose you want to argue that you deserve a raise at work (your claim). To support your claim, you will remind your supervisor of the contributions and improvements you have made, your length of employment, your conscientiousness, and your promptness. But you suspect that your supervisor may still turn you down, not because you don’t deserve the raise but because other employees might demand a similar raise. By anticipating this potential objection, you can build into your argument the reasons that the objection is not valid. You may have more time invested with the company and have taken on more responsibilities than the other employees, for example.

If an opponent’s argument is too strong to refute, most writers will acknowledge or accommodate the opposing viewpoint in some way. They acknowledge an opposing view simply by stating it. They accommodate an opposing view by noting that it has merit and modifying their position or finding a way of addressing it. In an argument opposing hunting, for example, a writer might simply acknowledge the view that hunting bans would cause a population explosion among deer. The writer might accommodate this opposing view by stating that if a population explosion were to occur, the problem could be solved by reintroducing natural predators into the area.

The following readings illustrate the components of effective argument essays. The first reading, by student Suzanne Nguyen, is annotated to point out those components. As you read the second essay, try to identify for yourself the claim and the supporting reasons, evidence, and emotional appeals Howard Bryant includes. Look, too, for places where Bryant refutes, accommodates, or acknowledges opposing views.

STUDENTS WRITE

Are Zoos the Best Answer for Animals?

Suzanne Nguyen

Title: Identifies issue, suggests claim, and engages readers with a rhetorical question

Suzanne Nguyen was a first-year student when she wrote the following essay for her composition course.

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Paragraph 1 reads, “Zoo-goers gather in the African mammals corner of the park to admire three new lionesses. These lionesses, the guide explains, were recently rescued from an illegal animal trading ring and efforts are underway to rehabilitate them for release back into the wild. A visitor raises his hand, asks the guide for more details on their rehabilitation program, and is told that staff members implement enrichment activities that promote the animals’ natural behaviors. There is no evidence of enrichment activity in the lionesses’ exhibit and the guide does not offer specific examples. The other visitors look impressed, nonetheless, and filter out. A little girl runs back to the glass in front of the lionesses and bangs against it repeatedly, trying to elicit a response from the animals. Instead of stopping her, her mother smiles and snaps a few photos of her daughter next to the glass. One of the lionesses ignores the girl and tries to sleep; one licks its nearly hairless, chapped paws continuously; the other paces anxiously within its small enclosure and swipes at the glass in front of the girl. Many people have witnessed similar scenes at zoos and have become aware of the animals’ sometimes subpar living conditions and the lackluster rehabilitation programs these institutions devise. While they seemingly offer a fun, family-friendly way to view and learn more about animals and their habitats, zoos too often prioritize entertainment over animal care and rehabilitation and, thus, should be abolished in favor of true wildlife preservation organizations.” The two corresponding annotations read, “Introduction: Engages readers with an anecdote and appeals to readers’ concerns for animals” and “Claims: Thesis statement that makes claims of value and policy.” The thesis statement, “While they seemingly offer a fun, family-friendly way to view and learn more about animals and their habitats, zoos too often prioritize entertainment over animal care and rehabilitation and, thus, should be abolished in favor of true wildlife preservation organizations” is double underlined. Paragraph 2 reads, “As the example of the lionesses suggests, captivity in zoos can take a severe toll on the emotional well-being of animals. The more time that animals spend in captivity, the more they demonstrate abnormal, repetitive behaviors, such as excessive licking, de-feathering, pacing, head bobbing, and so on. These abnormal behaviors stem from depression,” (The paragraph continues on the next page.) The corresponding annotation reads, “Reason 1: Topic sentence states first reason. Transition links paragraph to anecdote in introduction and refers to the sentence.” The topic sentence, “captivity in zoos can take a severe toll on the emotional well-being of animals,” is double underlined. The transition, “As the example of the lionesses suggests,” is underlined.

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The first paragraph is a continuation of paragraph 2 from the previous page. It reads, “anxiety, and distress (Mason et al. 164). A captive animal must depend on its keepers to provide its mental, physical, and social needs. While many zoos try to design enrichment programs that discourage the adoption of abnormal repetitive behaviors, often entertainment is incorporated into these activities, and frequently, purposeful enrichment is replaced by gimmicks and animal shows that will attract more people to the institution. These ulterior motives often lead to animals’ loss of sanity and do not accomplish their most important goal: preparing an animal for a life outside of captivity (Smith).” The corresponding annotation reads, “Support: Uses information from sources as supporting evidence.” The sources, “(Mason et al. 164)” and “(Smith),” are highlighted. Paragraph 3, “Frequently, zoos advertise their rehabilitation programs and supposed success stories as reasons for their existence, but many do not adequately support reintegration of rescued animals into the wild. A 2008 reintegration study conducted by researchers at the University of Exeter showed that only 30 percent of animals released from zoos into the wild survived. Why? One reason is that zoo animals are not taught to fear and avoid humans, but instead learn to tolerate their presence, making the animals easy targets of poachers and fearful residents (Jule et al. 356). Another reason is that animals who live most of their lives in captivity for the purpose of viewing pleasure, especially animals that do not spend enough time with members of their own species, do not have the opportunity to develop the learned behaviors that will help them survive in their natural habitats (Jule et al., 357). As a result, many of the animals not killed by humans die of starvation or become prey themselves. Essentially, the majority of animals released from zoos perish because they are left without survival tools in an unfamiliar place.” Two corresponding annotations read, “Reason 2: Topic sentence states second reason” and “Support: Statistics from a source provide evidence; rhetorical question (’why?’) engages readers.” The topic sentence, “Frequently, zoos advertise their rehabilitation programs and supposed success stories as reasons for their existence, but many do not adequately support reintegration of rescued animals into the wild” is double underlined. The statistics, “A 2008 reintegration study conducted by researchers at the University of Exeter,” “only 30 percent,” and the citations (Jule et al. 356),” and “(Jule et al., 357)” are highlighted. Paragraph 4, “Perhaps the most important reason that zoos fail their animal inhabitants is that zoos prioritize their entertainment value to paying customers over their animals’ welfare. Mason et al. The Columbus Zoo and Aquarium offers one such example. In an interview with the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium’s director emeritus, Jack Hanna claims that conservation awareness is at the core of his work (McConnell). However, he spends most of the interview boasting about the zoo’s revenue and monetary growth, rather than about wildlife conservation work. In photographs published with the interview, Hanna is shown posing with” (The paragraph continues on the next page.) Two corresponding annotations read, “Reason 3: Topic sentence states third reason. Transition suggests organization from least to most important reason” and “Support: Analysis of interview provides evidence to support claim stands in topic sentence.” The topic sentence, “that zoos fail their animal inhabitants is that zoos prioritize their entertainment value to paying customers over their animals’ welfare” is double underlined. The transition, “Perhaps the most important reason,” is underlined. The analysis of interview, “In an interview with the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium’s director emeritus, Jack Hanna claims that conservation awareness is at the core of his work (McConnell). However, he spends most of the interview boasting about the zoo’s revenue and monetary growth, rather than about wildlife conservation work. In photographs published with the interview, Hanna is shown posing with” is highlighted.

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The first paragraph is a continuation of paragraph 4 from the previous page. It reads, “variety of wild animals at photo shoots — a practice condemned by many wildlife activists as animal exploitation. (See fig. 1) In the past decade, this zoo has purchased a water park and golf course, and established additional food stands to accommodate the resulting influx of guests. While these changes have boosted park visitation and revenue, they do little to inspire confidence in their institutions’ dedication to animal conservation.” The analysis of interview (a continuation from previous page), “variety of wild animals at photo shoots — a practice condemned by many wildlife activists as animal exploitation. (See fig. 1),” is highlighted. The paragraph is accompanied by a photo. Th caption reads, “Fig. 1. Jack Hanna posses with actress and singer Debbie Gibson and a lemur at the 2012 Daytime Emmy Awards.” The corresponding annotation reads, “Support: Photo (highlighted) provides evidence.” The figure number is highlighted. Paragraph 5 reads, “Many zoo enthusiasts and supporters praise the improvements and successes zoos have achieved since their early days and choose to focus on an optimistic future for their animals instead of dwelling on the shortcomings they have yet to correct. Without zoos, they argue, how will the general public be exposed to wildlife, learn to value wild animals, and become supporters of conservation efforts? The answer is easy: through organizations such as sanctuaries and wildlife reservations. Reserves, such as the Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge in Virginia, and sanctuaries, such as Big Cat Rescue in Florida, use a variety of resources to educate the public and promote conservation awareness. The proliferation of” (The paragraph continues on the next page.) The corresponding annotation reads, “Conclusion: Acknowledges and rebuts opposing view, and offers alternative to zoos.” The rebut, “Many zoo enthusiasts and supporters praise the improvements and successes zoos have achieved since their early days and choose to focus on an optimistic future for their animals instead of dwelling on the shortcomings they have yet to correct. Without zoos, they argue, how will the general public be exposed to wildlife, learn to value wild animals, and become supporters of conservation efforts? The answer is easy: through organizations such as sanctuaries and wildlife reservations” is highlighted.

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The first paragraph is a continuation of paragraph 5 from the previous page. It reads, “social media makes these organizations highly accessible, and donations benefit their animals directly instead of being funneled into snack bars and bathrooms. Living conditions for animals in reserves and sanctuaries are spacious and resemble more closely their natural environments. Enrichment activities are for the animals’ benefit only, and do not take the form of cheap tricks designed to attract an audience. True wildlife preservation organizations have proven that it is possible to educate the public while providing safe, spacious, clean living environments for endangered animals, all without the need for mass attraction gimmicks, so who needs zoos?” The corresponding annotation reads, “Concludes with another rhetorical question.” The works cited are as follows. Jule, Kristen R., et al. “The Effects of Captive Experience on Reintroduction Survival in Carnivores: A Review and Analysis.” Biological Conservation (Italicized), volume 141, number 2, February 2008, p p. 355 en dash63. ScienceDirect (Italicized), w w w dot science direct dot com slash science slash article slash p i i slash S 0006320707004417. Mason, G., et al. “Why and How Should We Use Environmental Enrichment to Tackle Stereotypic Behaviour?” Applied Animal Behaviour Science (Italicized), volume 102, number 3 en dash4, February 2007, pp. 163 en dash 88. Science Direct (Italicized), w w w dot science direct dot com slash science slash article slash p i i slash S 0168159106001900. McConnell, Kitty. “Q&A: The Columbus Zoo’s Jack Hanna.” Columbus CEO (Italicized), February 2014, w w w dot columbus c e o dot com slash content slash roundup slash 2014 slash 02 slash jack hyphen hanna dot h t m l? page equals all. Smith, Laura. “Zoos Drive Animals Crazy.” Slate (Italicized), 20 June 2014, w w w slate dot com slash blogs slash wild underscore things slash 2014 slash 06 slash 20 slash animal underscore madness underscore zoochosis underscore stereotypic underscore behavior underscore and underscore problems underscore with underscore zoos dot h t m l.

EXERCISE 19.4

WRITING A SUMMARY

Check your understanding of the argument by writing a summary of “Are Zoos the Best Answer for Animals?”

EXERCISE 19.5

DRAWING A GRAPHIC ORGANIZER

Using Graphic Organizers 19.1 or 19.2 as a basis, draw a graphic organizer for “Are Zoos the Best Answer for Animals?”

READING

Smoke Screen

Howard Bryant

Howard (“Howie”) Bryant is a senior writer for ESPN.com and ESPN The Magazine. He is also a well-known radio personality and sports correspondent who appears regularly on ESPN Radio and National Public Radio. The following essay appeared in ESPN The Magazine in 2013.

Before Reading

1. Preview: Use the steps listed in Chapter 2.

2. Connect: Where do you stand on the issue of medical marijuana? Do you know anyone who uses it as a therapeutic alternative? Would you consider using it if you were in chronic pain?

While Reading

Identify the reasons and evidence Bryant uses to support his claim. Check the reasons and evidence you identify against those listed in Graphic Organizer 19.2.

1The truest way to see the NFL is not before the game, when the helmets are shiny and the energy is high, but after the final whistle, when the bodies are bruised and the athletic tape is soiled with dirt and blood. Or at the practice facility the following day, when the players show up with crutches and walking casts, fingers in splints, arms in slings. Pain is the singular constant of the NFL. Maintenance of that pain is as vital to players as mastering the read-option*; whether through cortisone, painkillers or drugs and alcohol, they have always self-medicated to heal from the game that breaks their bodies. Which is why, more than any other sport, the NFL should lead the conversation on considering medicinal marijuana as a therapeutic alternative.

2Medicinal marijuana is currently legal in twenty states, eight of which are home to NFL teams, and it is almost universally accepted in the medical community as a safe and effective pain reliever. Yet there appears to be no plan to reassess marijuana’s place on the NFL’s list of banned substances, and according to the NFLPA, no player in the league has received an exemption to use pot for medicinal purposes.

3That likely will not change tomorrow or even next year; the transition toward legitimacy is tricky. States are decriminalizing marijuana even as it remains illegal federally. Where marijuana can be obtained with a license, it still violates numerous federal drug-free-zone school statutes. If you are caught boarding a plane with marijuana or putting it in the mail, you will likely face arrest, whether you have a license exemption or not.

4Decriminalization is one thing; mainstream acceptance is something else. In a recent Gallup poll, for the first time, a majority of Americans (58 percent) said that the drug should be legal. Still, as much as the awareness of marijuana’s medicinal benefits is growing, the racial and cultural stigmas attached to it are far stronger, at least for now. (Remember Charles Oakley once saying that the NBA had “guys out there playing high every night,” or the ridicule snowboarding takes for being a “stoner sport.”) So marijuana appears destined to join Sudafed in the gray area of sport: a legal substance that athletes are banned from using.

5It does not have to be this way. The NFL has been defined this season by its unwilling place at the front of cultural transitions in sports. Its ironclad codes of masculinity are being challenged, first through grudging acknowledgment of the vulnerabilities of the human body, and second, from a re-examination—again unwillingly—of the locker room environment, as ignited by Richie Incognito and Jonathan Martin.* But now the league has an opportunity to actually lead, to open a discussion about medicinal marijuana and about the culture of pain maintenance among its players.

6No one can pretend this is an easy conversation to have, with the inevitable discomfort that comes from recognizing America’s utterly failed war on drugs. And the path of least resistance would be for the league, with its corporate caution, to back away and wait until the states and the federal government can reconcile local decriminalization with federal statutes, to find a dozen easy and obvious ways to stifle discussion. But what was illegal yesterday may be legal tomorrow. And because football players deal with pain management more acutely than athletes from other sports, a more virtuous and forward-thinking approach for the NFL would be to stimulate discussion of marijuana use. This is a league in which the locker room culture still demands that athletes play through it all. And given that marijuana is a legitimate pain reliever—especially for the migraines that can be a byproduct of head trauma—and is far less dangerous and potentially addictive than, say, OxyContin, it is almost immoral to deny players the right to use it.

7Whether it is the military or construction work or playing left tackle, pain—and not politics or culture—is the real issue. And if the NFL is serious about making the game both safer and better to play, it should be a leader on a difficult topic, to contribute to an honest dialogue and, more important, to make life a little more comfortable for its broken warriors.

* A common play in football.

* In 2013, an investigation by the Miami Dolphins found that Richie Incognito and other players bullied their teammate Jonathan Martin (and others). Martin decided to leave the Dolphins and was traded to the San Francisco 49ers. Incognito was suspended and later released by the Dolphins.

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GRAPHIC ORGANIZER 19.2 The Structure of “Smoke Screen”

The structure includes Title, Introduction, Claim, Body, and Conclusion. Title, “Smoke Screen” Introduction includes Issue: Medical marijuana in the NFL which further includes, Background information (heading): (bullet) Football players are injured in every game. (bullet) Managing pain is critical to players. (bullet) Players self-medicate to treat injuries. Claim includes Because of this self-medicating, the N F L should take the lead in approving the use of medical marijuana. Body includes the following. (1) Reason: Medicinal marijuana is legal in twenty states and accepted by medical practitioners, which further leads to Evidence (heading): (bullet) No player has received an exemption for medicinal marijuana. (bullet) Although states are making marijuana legal, it is still illegal federally. (2) Opposing viewpoint: Despite wide acceptance, the N F L does not plan to consider removing marijuana from its banned substances list which includes, Evidence (heading): (bullet) Charles Oakley said NBA players were playing high. (bullet) Snowboarding is often criticized as being a “stoner sport.” (bullet) Marijuana may become a legal substance but banned for athletes. (3) Reason: The majority of Americans favor the legalization of marijuana. (4) Opposing viewpoint: Racial and cultural stigmas remain against marijuana which includes Opposing viewpoint (heading): (bullet) The conversation will be difficult given the failed war on drugs. (bullet) The path of least resistance is to wait until state and federal differences are resolved. (5) Thesis: It does not have to be this way — the NFL could lead an open discussion about culture or pain and pain management. (6) Reason: Football players experience more pain than players from other sports, so they are well suited to make the case for acceptance, which includes Evidence (heading): (bullet) They are expected to play through pain. (bullet) Marijuana is a proven pain reliever, especially for migraines, which players suffer as a result of head trauma. Conclusion includes Solution: The N F L should be a leader in discussion of legalization of marijuana in sports. The process from title to conclusion leads through introduction, claim, and body, respectively.

Analyze the Basic Components of an Argument

As you read an argument, consider the basic aspects of all persuasive writing: the author’s credibility, purpose, and audience, and the reasons and evidence he or she provides as support.

For more on evaluation, see Chapters 3, 5, and 21.

Analyze the Writer’s Credibility, Purpose, and Audience

Ask yourself: Why does the writer want to convince me of this? What does he or she stand to gain, if anything? Be particularly skeptical if a writer stands to profit personally from your acceptance of an argument.

Use the tone and the formality or informality of the author’s language to figure out the type of audience — receptive, hostile, interested but skeptical — the author is expecting to address. How receptive the intended audience is expected to be might help you understand and evaluate the writer’s argument. For example, writers addressing a receptive audience may not argue as carefully for their claims as would writers addressing a skeptical or hostile audience.

Consider also the writer’s knowledge and trustworthiness. Ask yourself whether the writer has a thorough understanding of the issue, acknowledges opposing views and represents them fairly, and establishes common ground with readers by acknowledging their needs and values.

Assess the Writer’s Reasons and Evidence

To assess the reasons and evidence, ask yourself questions like these: Does the writer offer enough reasons, do those reasons make sense, and are they relevant? Does the author supply enough evidence, and is that evidence accurate, complete, representative, up-to-date, and taken from reputable sources? Are the authorities cited experts in their field? Are sources cited formally or informally?

Assess the Emotional Appeals

Emotional appeals are a legitimate part of an argument. However, writers should not attempt to manipulate readers’ emotions to distract them from the issue and the evidence. Table 19.1 presents some common unfair emotional appeals.

When assessing appeals to values, pay attention to the language the author uses and how he or she defines terms. Underline any terms that can have more than one meaning. Then read through the essay to see if the author defines these terms clearly and uses them consistently. Pay particular attention to words that appeal to values, and remember that not everyone considers the same principles or qualities important or agrees on their definition.

TABLE 19.1 Common Unfair Emotional Appeals

Unfair Emotional Appeal

Example

Name-calling: Using an emotionally loaded term to create a negative response

“That reporter is an egotistical bully.”

Ad hominem: Attacking the opponent rather than his or her position on the issue

“How could anyone who didn’t fight in a war criticize the president’s foreign policy?”

False authority: Quoting the opinions of celebrities or public figures about topics on which they are not experts

“According to singer Jennifer Hope, entitlement reform is America’s most urgent economic problem.”

Plain folks: Urging readers to accept an idea or take an action because it is suggested by someone who is just like they are

“Vote for me. I’m just a regular guy.”

Appeal to pity: Arousing sympathy by telling hard-luck or excessively sentimental stories

“Latchkey children come home to an empty house or apartment, a can of soup, and a note on the refrigerator.”

Bandwagon: Appealing to readers’ desire to conform (“Everyone’s doing it, so it must be right”)

“It must be okay to exceed the speed limit, since so many people speed.”

Evaluate Opposing Viewpoints

If an argument essay takes into account opposing viewpoints, you must evaluate how the writer presents them. Ask yourself the following questions:

Does the author state the opposing viewpoint clearly?

Does the author present the opposing viewpoint fairly and completely? That is, does the author treat the opposing viewpoint with respect or attempt to discredit or demean those holding the opposing view? Does the author present all the major parts of the opposing viewpoint or only those parts that he or she is able to refute?

Does the author clearly show why he or she considers the opposing viewpoint wrong or inappropriate? Does the author apply sound logic? Does the author provide reasons and evidence?

Does the author acknowledge or accommodate points that cannot be refuted?

Detect Faulty Reasoning

In some arguments, a writer may commit fallacies, errors in reasoning or thinking. Fallacies can weaken an argument, undermine a writer’s claim, and call into question the relevancy, believability, or consistency of supporting evidence. Table 19.2 provides a brief review of the most common types of faulty reasoning.

For more on reasoning, see Chapter 20.

TABLE 19.2 Common Fallacies

Fallacy

Example

Circular reasoning (begging the question): Using the claim (or part of it) as evidence by simply repeating the claim in different words

Cruel and unusual experimentation on helpless animals is inhumane.

Hasty generalization: Drawing a conclusion based on insufficient evidence or isolated examples

“Based on the three chocolate cakes I just tasted, I can tell you that chocolate cake is overly sweet.”

Sweeping generalization: Claiming that something applies to all situations or instances without exception

“All TV remotes are easy to use.”

False analogy: Comparing two situations that are not sufficiently similar. Just because two items or events are alike in some ways does not mean they are alike in all ways.

“A human body needs rest after strenuous work, and a car needs rest after a long trip.”

Non sequitur (“It does not follow” in Latin): Joining two or more ideas when no logical relationship exists between them

“Because my sister is financially independent, she will make a good parent.”

Red herring: Distracting readers from the main issue by raising an irrelevant point

In an argument about banning advertisements for alcohol on TV, mentioning that some parents give their children sips of alcohol could distract readers from the main issue.

Post hoc fallacy (“after this, therefore because of this” in Latin): Assuming that event A caused event B simply because B followed A

“Student enrollment fell dramatically this semester because of the recent appointment of the new college president.” (Other factors may have contributed to the decline in enrollment.)

Either-or fallacy (false dilemma): Arguing that there are only two sides to an issue and that only one of them is correct

“Marijuana must be either legalized or banned.” (A third alternative is to legalize marijuana for medical use, such as to reduce nausea for those undergoing chemotherapy.)

EXERCISE 19.6

EVALUATING AN ARGUMENT

Working in a group of two or three students, analyze one of the reading selections in this or the next chapter by analyzing its basic components listed in the previous section.

HOW WRITERS READ

ARGUMENT

THE READING PROCESS

STRATEGIES

BEFORE READING

Preview the essay to get an overview of its content and organization.

Make connections by thinking about what claim the author is likely to make, given the title and how you feel about the issue.

WHILE READING

Analyze and evaluate the reading by answering the following questions:

✵ What issue is the writer tackling? What is the claim, or position, on the issue?

✵ What are the author’s main reasons, and what evidence does the author offer?

✵ What needs or values does the author seem to be appealing to?

✵ Does the author present and respond to opposing views fairly?

AFTER READING

Analyze and evaluate the reading by answering the following questions:

✵ What are the author’s credentials? Many books and magazine articles will include a headnote or minibiography, or you can Google the author’s name. (Be sure you’re selecting the correct person, especially if the writer has a common name.) Is the writer an authority on the topic?

✵ Does the author provide compelling and relevant reasons to support the claim? Is the evidence accurate, complete, representative, up-to-date, and sufficient to make the claim convincing?

✵ Does the author use emotional appeals fairly?

✵ Has the writer avoided the common errors of reasoning, such as circular reasoning, sweeping generalizations, or the either-or fallacy?

EXERCISE 19.7

READING CRITICALLY

Apply the questions in the “How Writers Read” box above to the selection “Smoke Screen.”

Readings: Arguments in Action

READING

The Case for Free Money

James Surowiecki

James Surowiecki is a finance journalist. From 2000 to 2017, he wrote “The Financial Page” column for The New Yorker. Prior to 2000, he wrote the Moneybox column for Slate and worked as the business columnist for New York magazine. In 2018 he became a senior producer on HBO’s Vice News Tonight. Before reading, preview and make connections by thinking about this question: What would you do if some of your basic needs were taken care of? While reading, notice the many examples the author provides. What is the cumulative effect of all these examples?

JUST-IN-TIME TIP

Evaluating Evidence

The key to evaluating an argument is to examine whether the reasons the writer offers are adequately supported. Charts like the one below (and in “Five Reasons Why Universal Basic Income Is a Bad Idea”) can help you identify and organize reasons and evaluate the evidence offered in support. The first reason is filled in for you. Be sure to conclude with an overall statement of how well you feel the author provides supporting evidence.

Reason

Evidence

Evaluation and Questions

Para. 3: Support for basic income comes from both left and right.



Para. 4:



Para. 5:



Para. 6:



Para. 7:



1In the mid-nineteen-seventies, the Canadian province of Manitoba ran an unusual experiment: it started just handing out money to some of its citizens. The town of Dauphin, for instance, sent checks to thousands of residents every month, in order to guarantee that all of them received a basic income. The goal of the project, called Mincome, was to see what happened. Did people stop working? Did poor people spend foolishly and stay in poverty? But, after a Conservative government ended the project, in 1979, Mincome was buried. Decades later, Evelyn Forget, an economist at the University of Manitoba, dug up the numbers. And what she found was that life in Dauphin improved markedly. Hospitalization rates fell. More teen-agers stayed in school. And researchers who looked at Mincome’s impact on work rates discovered that they had barely dropped at all. The program had worked about as well as anyone could have hoped.

2Mincome was a prototype of an idea that came to the fore in the sixties, and that is now popular again among economists and policy folks: a basic income guarantee. There are many versions of the idea, but the most interesting is what is called a universal basic income: every year, every adult citizen in the U.S. would receive a stipend—ten thousand dollars is a number often mentioned. (Children would receive a smaller allowance.)

3One striking thing about guaranteeing a basic income is that it’s always had support both on the left and on the right—albeit for different reasons. Martin Luther King embraced the idea, but so did the right-wing economist Milton Friedman, while the Nixon Administration even tried to get a basic-income guarantee through Congress. These days, among younger thinkers on the left, the U.B.I. is seen as a means to ending poverty, combatting rising inequality, and liberating workers from the burden of crappy jobs. For thinkers on the right, the U.B.I. seems like a simpler, and more libertarian, alternative to the thicket of anti-poverty and social-welfare programs.

4There are signs that the U.B.I. may be an idea whose time has come. Switzerland held a referendum on a basic income last week (though it lost badly); Finland is going to run a U.B.I. experiment next year; and Y-Combinator, a Silicon Valley incubator firm, is sponsoring a similar test in Oakland. Why now? In the U.S., the new interest in the U.B.I. is driven in part by anxiety about how automation will affect workers. Bhaskar Sunkara, the publisher of the socialist magazine Jacobin told me, “People are fearful of becoming redundant, and there is this sense that the economy cannot be built to provide jobs for everyone.” In the short run, concerns about robots taking all our jobs are probably overstated. But the appeal of a basic income—a kind of Social Security for everyone—is easy to understand. It is easy to administer; it avoids the paternalism of social-welfare programs that tell people what they can and cannot buy with the money they’re given; and, if it is truly universal, it could help destigmatize government assistance. As Sunkara puts it, “Universal programs build social solidarity, and they become politically easier to defend.”

5The U.B.I. is often framed as a tool for fighting poverty, but it would have other important benefits. By providing an income cushion, it would increase workers’ bargaining power, potentially driving up wages. It would make it easier for people to take risks with their job choices, and to invest in education. In the U.S. in the seventies, there were small-scale experiments with basic-income guarantees, and they showed that young people with a basic income were more likely to stay in school; in New Jersey, kids’ chances of graduating from high school increased by twenty-five per cent.

6Critics of the U.B.I. argue that handing people cash, instead of targeted aid (like food stamps), means that much of the money will be wasted, and that a basic income will take away the incentive to work, lowering G.D.P. and giving us a nation of lazy, demoralized people. But the example of the many direct-cash-grant programs in the developing world suggests that, as the Columbia economist Chris Blattman puts it, “the poor do not waste grants.” As for the work question, most of the basic-income experiments suggest that the disincentive effect would not be large; in Manitoba, working hours for men dropped by just one per cent. It is certainly true that the U.B.I. would make it easier for people to think twice about taking unrewarding jobs. But that is a good consequence, not a bad one.

7A basic income would not be cheap—depending on how the program was structured, it would likely cost at least twelve to thirteen per cent of G.D.P. And, given the state of American politics, that renders the U.B.I. politically impossible for the time being. Yet the most popular social-welfare programs in the U.S. all seemed utopian at first. Until the nineteen-twenties, no state in the union offered any kind of old-age pension; by 1935, we had Social Security. Guaranteed health care for seniors was attacked as unworkable and socialist; now Medicare is uncontroversial. If the U.B.I. comes to be seen as a kind of insurance against a radically changing job market, rather than simply as a handout, the politics around it will change. When this happens, it is easy to imagine a basic income going overnight from completely improbable to totally necessary.

Understanding the Reading

1. Summary Summarize Surowiecki’s opinion regarding universal basic income and quote one or more sentences from the essay that concisely express his opinion.

2. Evidence What type of evidence does Surowiecki rely on primarily?

3. Reasons List at least three reasons that Surowiecki provides to support the idea that universal basic income may be beneficial.

4. Vocabulary Explain the meaning of each of the following words as it is used in the reading: prototype (para. 2), stipend (2), thicket (3), redundant (4), paternalism (4), incentive (6).

Analyzing the Writer’s Technique

1. Issue and Claim What specific issue does Surowiecki discuss? What type(s) of claim does he make?

2. Audience Who is Surowiecki’s intended audience?

3. Appeals To what emotions does Surowiecki appeal in the essay?

4. Title Why do you think the author entitled the reading “The Case for Free Money”? What does the title reveal about the author’s attitude toward a universal basic income?

Thinking Critically about Argument

1. Tone Describe Surowiecki’s tone. Highlight key words or phrases that reveal this tone.

2. Sources Discuss the author’s use of sources. Has he consulted a reasonable number of sources? How does his engagement (or lack of engagement) with sources affect the credibility of his argument?

3. Connotation What connotation does the word thicket (para. 3) have in Surowiecki’s article?

4. Refutation and Opposing Viewpoints Does Surowiecki present opposing viewpoints? If so, how does he present them and what is his response to them?

Responding to the Reading

1. Reaction What is your response to Surowiecki’s examples and his argument? Do you find yourself basically agreeing with him or basically disagreeing with him about the feasibility of a universal basic income plan for U.S. citizens?

2. Rebuttal Imagine that you must respond to Surowiecki’s article. List at least three reasons why universal basic income would not be beneficial.

3. Journal In your journal, compile a list of the concerns and questions that you have about instituting a universal basic income.

4. Essay Write an essay in which you examine a federal antipoverty program, such as School Lunch program, SNAP (food stamps), or TANF (Temporary Assistance for Needy Families). How effective has this program been in fighting poverty? How is the program administered? What are some of its pros and cons? How could the program better help the needy rise above poverty? Be sure to include evidence from sources and a correctly formatted Works Cited page.

READING

Five Reasons Why Universal Basic Income Is a Bad Idea

Ian Goldin

Ian Goldin is a professor of globalization and development at the University of Oxford in England. Born in South Africa, he held a number of important positions before becoming a professor at Oxford, including serving as a principal economist for the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, chief executive of the Development Bank of South Africa, adviser to President Nelson Mandela, and vice president of the World Bank. He is also a prolific writer of books and journal articles. Before reading, preview and make connections by thinking about how work will change as artificial intelligence (AI) becomes more sophisticated. How might lost jobs be replaced? While reading, notice how Goldin recognizes and responds to alternative views.

JUST-IN-TIME TIP

Evaluating Types of Evidence

This reading offers five reasons why UBI is not feasible. The author needs to provide solid evidence to support the viewpoints offered. Charts like the one below (and in “The Case for Free Money”) will help you examine and evaluate the evidence provided (or not provided). The first reason is filled in for you. Be sure to conclude with a statement providing your overall assessment of the author’s use of supporting evidence

Reason

Evidence

Evaluation and Questions

Para. 2: One third of jobs are threatened.



Para. 3:



Para. 4:



Para. 5:



Para. 6:



Para. 7:



Para. 8:



1As the scale of the potential job losses arising from the artificial intelligence and robotics revolution becomes clearer, a chorus of otherwise disconnected billionaires, trade unionists and others are calling for universal basic income. Recognizing the threat posed by these dislocations is welcome and timely, but seeking solace in UBI is a bad idea.

2At least one in three jobs is vulnerable to AI and robotics, with routine and repetitive tasks in manufacturing, administration and call centers most easily substituted. Research at the Oxford Martin School estimates that over the next 20 years, up to 47 per cent of U.S. jobs, around 40 per cent of UK and European jobs and a higher share of jobs in many developing countries including China, could be replaced by machines. The exponential increase in computing power and machine learning will intensify these vulnerabilities. It is misleading to think of this as yet another industrial revolution and take comfort in the fact all previous industrial revolutions have resulted in more and better-quality jobs. This time is different, both in the pace and the reach of change. The growth of new jobs is slower than the destruction of old jobs and their quality in many cases is inferior, as full-time career employment gives way to gig work or contingency contracts.

3The places most vulnerable are also geographically isolated from the dynamic cities experiencing record earnings growth and low unemployment. Moving to these cities is increasingly difficult, as soaring housing and commuting costs reduce employment mobility. The result is rising geographical concentration of poverty and inequality in places left behind by change. The political reverberations are already being felt. The legitimate concerns of vulnerable workers must be addressed. But UBI is a red herring for five reasons.

4First, UBI is financially irresponsible. Universal means everyone gets it. Even in the richest societies, if UBI was set at a level to provide a modest but decent standard of living it would be unaffordable and lead to ballooning deficits. To close the UBI budget black hole, much higher taxes or reallocation of resources from other areas such as health and education would be needed.

5Second, UBI will lead to higher inequality and poverty. It typically aims to replace existing unemployment and other benefits with a simple universal grant. As shown by the OECD, the Paris-based club of mostly rich nations, by reallocating welfare payments from targeted transfers (such as unemployment, disability or housing benefits) to a generalized transfer to everyone, the amount that goes to the most deserving is lower. Billionaires get a little more.

6Third, UBI will undermine social cohesion. Individuals gain not only income, but meaning, status, skills, networks and friendships through work. Delinking income and work, while rewarding people for staying at home, is what lies behind social decay. Crime, drugs, broken families and other socially destructive outcomes are more likely in places with high unemployment, as is evident in the drug pandemic in the U.S.

7Fourth, UBI undermines incentives to participate. Stronger safety nets are vital. No decent society should tolerate dire poverty or starvation. But for those who are able, help should be designed to get individuals and families to participate in society; to help people overcome unemployment and find work, retrain, move cities. Wherever possible, safety nets should be a lifeline towards meaningful work and participation in society, not a guarantee of a lifetime of dependence.

8Fifth, UBI offers a panacea to corporate and political leaders, postponing a discussion about the future of jobs. The demographic pressures in rich countries, and the deep challenge AI poses to development prospects in poor ones, adds to the need for this conversation. There must be more part-time work, shorter weeks, and rewards for home work, creative industries and social and individual care.

9Forget about UBI; to reverse rising inequality and social dislocation we need to radically change the way we think.

Understanding the Reading

1. Definition What is a red herring?

2. Reasons What are the five reasons that Goldin gives to prove his claim that UBI is a red herring?

3. The Larger Issue In the title of the essay, Goldin hints that because of the distraction caused by the idea of UBI, a larger issue is not being addressed. What is the larger issue?

4. Vocabulary Explain the meaning of each of the following words as it is used in the reading: solace (para. 1), contingency (2), reverberations (3), cohesion (6), pandemic (6), panacea (8).

Analyzing the Writer’s Technique

1. Claim What is Goldin’s claim? Is it a claim of fact, value, or policy? Explain how you know.

2. Appeals What types of emotional appeals does Goldin make? Identify the needs and values to which he appeals.

3. Evidence What types of evidence does Goldin use to support his claim?

4. Reasoning Are there any errors in reasoning? If so, explain.

Thinking Critically about Argument

1. Opposing Viewpoints Does the author discuss, acknowledge, or rebut opposing viewpoints? If so, how? Are these opposing viewpoints representative of the arguments in favor of UBI?

2. Fact or Opinion Is Goldin relying on fact, opinion, or both to support his argument? Identify passages that support your answer.

3. Tone Describe Goldin’s tone. Highlight several words or phrases that reveal this tone.

4. Figurative Language Explain what the author means when he speaks of the “budget black hole” (para. 4).

Responding to the Reading

1. Reaction What is your reaction to Goldin’s article? How, if at all, did Goldin’s article affect your thinking or change your opinion?

2. Discussion The author mentions the “political reverberations” (para. 3) related to inequality and poverty in areas left behind because of changes in the job market. Bring to class several examples of issues that are politically divisive. What are the various sides of each issue, what types of claims (fact, value, policy) are made for each? What criteria would you use to judge which side of the argument you favor?

3. Journal What jobs in your community have fallen victim to the artificial intelligence and robotics revolution? Of the jobs that remain, which ones do you think will continue to be viable in the future? How do you think the job you hope to have in the future will be affected by artificial intelligence and robotics?

4. Essay Write an essay in which you argue for or against one of the following:

o a shorter work week

o replacing unemployment benefits with UBI

o free tuition at state colleges and universities

o funding UBI with reallocated funds from health and education

o setting an earnings cap on UBI distribution

SYNTHESIZING IDEAS

UNIVERSAL BASIC INCOME

“The Case for Free Money: Why Don’t We Have Universal Basic Income?” and “Five Reasons Why Universal Basic Income Is a Bad Idea” take opposing viewpoints on the topic of universal basic income.

Analyzing the Readings

1. Having read these two essays, which do you think more effectively acknowledges and accommodates opposing viewpoints, and how does this affect whether you accept the writer’s position?

2. One of the essays has information related to experimental projects and quotes from expert economists, while the other relies heavily on the author’s own opinions as a renowned economist. Which makes a more compelling case? Which do you think would provide a better model for your own writing, and why?

Essay Idea

Write an essay in which you refute either Surowiecki’s or Goldin’s main claim. Use evidence from the essays in this chapter to support your position, and conduct research as needed.

EXPLORE, RESEARCH, WRITE

Tuition-free college education for all has been proposed by politicians, legislators, and educators, and even implemented in a few places. But it has not become the norm in the United States. The readings that follow offer a representative sample of opinions in favor of and opposed to tuition-free college for all:

✵ “The Argument for Tuition-Free College” by U.S. Representative Keith Ellison of Minnesota (The American Prospect, 14 April 2016)

✵ “Make College Free for All” by Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders (Washington Post, 22 October 2015)

✵ “College Doesn’t Need to Be Free” by Charles Lane, an editorial writer on fiscal policy (Washington Post, 21 May 2015)

Using what you learned in this chapter about reading and evaluating arguments, answer the following questions for each of the readings:

✵ What specific issue does the author discuss?

✵ What is the claim? State it in your own words.

✵ What type of evidence does the author rely on primarily to support his claim?

✵ To which values does the author appeal?

✵ Does the author present opposing viewpoints? If so, what are they?

After answering the questions for each reading, write a paragraph for each reading that analyzes the effectiveness of the author’s argument. Be sure to consider the author’s credibility, purpose, and audience, and the reasons and evidence he provides as support.