Successful college writing, Eighth edition - Kathleen T. McWhorter 2020

Writing arguments
Reading and writing arguments

In this chapter you will learn to

✵ understand the purpose and function of argument essays

✵ use graphic organizers to visualize argument essays

✵ integrate argument into an essay

✵ plan, organize, draft, revise, and edit essays using argument

Writing Quick Start

ANALYZE

The photograph above emphasizes the importance of voter turnout—getting qualified voters to the polls. Some people take the position that voter turnout could be dramatically increased if voting were made more convenient and accessible through online voting.

WRITE

Draft a brief argument (one to three paragraphs) that either agrees or disagrees with the position that online voting should be readily available.

Be sure to

✵ identify the issue

✵ state your position on the issue (your claim)

✵ offer at least one reason why your position is reasonable and should be accepted

Then, alone or with one or two classmates, revise your argument to appeal to an audience that disagrees with your position. How would your original argument have to change? What needs or values could you use to appeal to this new group? What ideas and attitudes would you need to acknowledge, accommodate, or refute?

CONNECT

By following the steps listed, you started to build a sound argument: You made a claim, supported it with evidence, and refuted or accommodated opposing views. The ability to construct sound arguments is an important skill. Many political, social, and economic issues are resolved through public and private debate that involves argument.

In this chapter you will learn to write effective arguments, modeling the characteristics of effective arguments you learned in Chapter 19 and following the detailed guidelines offered in this chapter.

USING ARGUMENT

IN COLLEGE AND THE WORKPLACE

✵ In a health science course, you are part of a group working on an argument essay claiming that the results of genetic testing, which can predict a person’s likelihood of contracting serious diseases, should be confidential.

✵ As a student member of the affirmative action committee on campus, you write a letter to the editor of the campus newspaper defending the committee’s recently drafted affirmative action plan for minorities and women.

✵ As a lawyer representing a client whose hand was seriously injured on the job, you argue to a jury that your client deserves compensation for the work-related injury.

What Are the Characteristics of Argument Essays?

In developing an argument essay, you need to select a controversial issue, make a clear and specific claim that takes a position on the issue, and give reasons and evidence to support the claim that will appeal to your audience. In addition, you should follow a logical line of reasoning; use emotional appeals appropriately; and acknowledge, accommodate, or refute opposing views.

Arguments Focus on Arguable, Narrowly Defined Issues

An issue is a controversy, problem, or idea about which people disagree. When writing an argument, be sure your issue is controversial. For example, free public education is an important topic, but it is not particularly controversial. (Most people would be in favor of at least some forms of free public education.) Instead, you might choose the issue free public college education or universal, free prekindergarten education.

Depending on the issue you choose and the audience you write for, a clear definition of the issue may be required. In addition, your readers may need background information. For example, in an argument about awarding organs for transplantation, you may need to give general readers information about the scarcity of organ donors versus the number of people who need transplants.

The issue you choose should be narrow enough to deal with adequately in an essay-length argument. For a brief (three- to five-page) essay on organ transplants, for instance, you could narrow your focus to transplants of a particular organ or to one aspect of the issue, such as who should and should not receive them. A narrow focus will allow you to offer more detailed reasons and evidence and respond to opposing viewpoints more effectively.

EXERCISE 20.1

LIMITING A TOPIC AND PROVIDING BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Working alone or with a partner, choose two of the following issues. For each issue, use two or more strategies from Chapter 4 to limit the topic. Then list the background information readers might need to understand the issue.

1. Virtual learning and access to education

2. Social media and the right to privacy

3. Speech codes on campus

4. Religious symbols on public property

5. Mandatory drug testing

An Argumentative Thesis Makes a Specific Claim and May Call for Action

To build a convincing argument, you need to make a clear and specific claim, one that states your position on the issue precisely. To keep your essay on track, state your claim in a strong thesis in the introduction or early in the essay. As you gain experience in writing arguments, you can experiment with placing your thesis later in the essay.

For more on types of claims, see Chapter 19.

Here are a few examples of how general claims can be narrowed to create clear and specific thesis statements:

The first example reads, “More protect children in day care centers.” In this sentence, “more” is replaced by “statewide” and “protect children” is replaced by “regulate the child-to-caregiver ratio and the qualifications of workers.” The revised sentence reads, “Statewide standards are needed to regulate the child-to-caregiver ratio and the qualifications of workers in day care centers.” The second example reads, “The use of animals in testing should be prohibited.” In this sentence, “use of” is replaced by “testing of cosmetics and skin-care products” and “in testing” is omitted. The revised sentence reads, “The testing of cosmetics and skincare products on animals should be prohibited.”

While all arguments make and support a claim, some, like claims of policy, also call for a specific action to be taken. An essay opposing human cloning might urge readers to voice their opposition in letters to congressional representatives, for example.

Be careful about the way you state your claim. In most cases, avoid an absolute statement that applies to all cases; your claim will be more convincing if you qualify, or limit, it by using words and phrases like probably, often, and for the most part. For example, the claim, “Single-sex educational institutions are always more beneficial to girls than coeducational schools are,” could easily be undermined by a critic by citing a single exception. If you qualify your claim — “Single-sex educational institutions are often more beneficial to girls than are coeducational schools” — then an exception would not necessarily weaken the argument.

EXERCISE 20.2

MAKING CLAIMS AND CALLING FOR ACTION

Choose two of the following issues. For each issue, write two thesis statements — one that makes a claim and contains a qualifying term and another that makes a claim and calls for action.

1. Controlling pornography on the Internet

2. Limiting immigration

3. Limiting political campaign spending

4. Restricting testing of beauty products on animals

5. Promoting competitive sports for young children

Effective Arguments Are Logical

The reasons and evidence in an argument should follow a logical line of reasoning. The most common types of reasoning are induction and deduction (see Figure 20.1). Inductive reasoning begins with evidence and moves to a conclusion; deductive reasoning begins with a commonly accepted statement, or premise, and shows how a conclusion follows from it. You can use one or both types of reasoning to keep your argument on a logical path.

FIGURE 20.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning leads to Conclusion. Inductive reasoning includes Evidence 1, Evidence 2, Evidence 3, and Evidence 4. Deductive reasoning includes three steps. They are as follows. Major premise, Minor premise, which leads to Conclusion. Downward arrows connect the steps.

Inductive reasoning

Think of inductive reasoning as a process of coming to a conclusion after observing a number of examples. For example, suppose you go shopping for a new pair of sneakers. You try on one style of Nikes. The sneakers don’t fit, so you try a different style. That style doesn’t fit either. You try two more styles, neither of which fits. Finally, because of your experience, you draw the conclusion that either you need to remeasure your feet or Nike does not make a sneaker that fits your feet.

When you use inductive reasoning, you make an inference, or guess, about the cases that you have not experienced. In doing so, you run the risk of being wrong. When building an inductive argument, be aware of some potential pitfalls.

✵ Consider as many possible explanations for the cases you observe as you can. In the sneaker example, perhaps the salesperson brought you the wrong size.

✵ Be sure that you have sufficient and typical evidence on which to base your conclusion. Suppose you learn that one professional athlete was involved in a driving-while-intoxicated incident and that another left the scene of an auto accident. If, from these limited observations, you conclude that professional athletes are irresponsible, your reasoning is faulty because these two cases may not be typical of all professional athletes and are not sufficient for drawing a conclusion. (If you draw a conclusion based on insufficient evidence or isolated examples, you have committed the fallacy of hasty generalization. You may also have committed a sweeping generalization — drawing a conclusion that applies to all cases without exception.)

For more on common fallacies, see Chapter 19, Table 19.2.

When you use inductive reasoning in an argument essay, the conclusion becomes the claim, and the specific pieces of evidence support your reasons for making the claim. For example, suppose you make a claim that Pat’s Used Cars is an unethical business from which you should not buy a car. As support you might offer the following reasons and evidence:

Deductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning begins with premises — statements that are generally accepted as true. Once the premises are accepted as true, the conclusion must also be true. The most common deductive argument is a syllogism, which consists of two premises and a conclusion.

When you use deductive reasoning, putting your argument in the form of a syllogism will help you write your claim, then organize and evaluate your reasons and evidence. Suppose you want to support the claim that state funding for Kids First, an early childhood program, should remain intact. You might use the following syllogism to build your argument:

Your thesis statement would be “Because early childhood programs are likely to increase the readiness of at-risk children to attend school, state funding for Kids First should be continued.” Your evidence would be information demonstrating the effectiveness of Kids First, such as the school performance of at-risk students who attended Kids First versus the school performance of at-risk students who did not and the cost of remedial education in later years versus the cost of Kids First.

Effective Arguments Depend on Careful Audience Analysis

To build a convincing argument, you need to know your audience. Analyze your audience to determine their education, background, and experience. Then also consider the following:

For more on audience analysis, see Chapter 4.

✵ how familiar your audience is with the issue

✵ whether your audience is likely to agree, be neutral or wavering, or disagree with your claim

This knowledge will help you select reasons and evidence and choose appeals that your readers will find compelling.

Agreeing audiences

Agreeing audiences are the easiest to write for because they already accept your claim. When you write for an audience that is likely to agree with your claim, the focus is usually on urging readers to take a specific action. Instead of having to offer large amounts of facts and statistics as evidence, you can concentrate on reinforcing your shared viewpoint and building emotional ties with your audience. By doing so, you encourage readers to act on their beliefs.

Neutral or wavering audiences

Although they may be somewhat familiar with the issue, neutral or wavering audiences may have questions about, misunderstandings about, or no interest in the issue. When writing for this type of audience, emphasize the importance of the issue or shared values, and clear up misunderstandings readers may have. Your goals are to make readers care about the issue, establish yourself as a knowledgeable and trustworthy writer, and present solid evidence in support of your claim.

Disagreeing audiences

The most challenging audience is one that holds viewpoints in opposition to yours. The people in such an audience may have strong feelings about the issue and may distrust you because you don’t share their views. In writing for a disagreeing audience, your goal is not necessarily to persuade readers to adopt your position but rather to convince them to consider your views. To be persuasive, you must follow a logical line of reasoning. Rather than stating your claim early in the essay, it may be more effective to build slowly to your thesis, first establishing common ground, a basis of trust and goodwill, by mentioning shared values, interests, concerns, and experiences.

EXERCISE 20.3

DEVELOPING AN ARGUMENT FOR A SPECIFIC AUDIENCE

Choose one of the following claims and discuss how you would argue in support of it for (a) an agreeing audience, (b) a neutral or wavering audience, and (c) a disagreeing audience:

1. Public school sex education classes should be mandatory because they help students make important decisions about their lives.

2. Portraying the effects of violent crime realistically on television may help reduce the crime rate.

3. Children who spend too much time interacting with a computer may fail to learn how to interact with people.

Effective Arguments Present Reasons and Evidence Readers Will Find Compelling

In developing an argument, you need to provide reasons for making a claim. A reason is a general statement that backs up a claim; it answers the question “Why do I have this opinion about this issue?” You also need to support each reason with evidence.

Suppose you want to argue that high school uniforms should be mandatory. You might give three reasons:

1. Uniforms reduce clothing costs for parents.

2. They help eliminate distractions in the classroom.

3. They reduce peer pressure.

You would need to support each of your reasons with some combination of evidence, such as facts, statistics, examples, personal experience, or expert testimony. Carefully linking your evidence to reasons helps your readers see how the evidence supports your claim.

Choose reasons and evidence that will appeal to your audience. In the argument about mandatory school uniforms, high school students would probably not be impressed by your first reason, but they might be persuaded by your second and third reasons if you cite evidence that appeals to them, such as personal anecdotes from other students. For an audience of parents, facts and statistics about reduced clothing costs and improved academic performance would be appealing types of evidence.

Effective Arguments Appeal to Readers’ Needs and Values

Although an effective argument relies mainly on credible evidence and logical reasoning, emotional appeals to readers’ needs and values can help support and strengthen a sound argument. Needs can be biological or psychological (food and drink, sex, a sense of belonging, self-esteem). Values are principles or qualities that readers consider important, worthwhile, or desirable. Examples include honesty, loyalty, privacy, and patriotism.

For more on emotional appeals, see Chapter 19.

Effective Arguments Recognize Alternative Views

Recognizing and countering alternative perspectives on an issue forces you to think hard about your claims. When you anticipate readers’ objections, you may find reasons to adjust your reasoning and develop a stronger argument. Readers will also be more willing to consider your claim if you take their point of view into account.

You can recognize alternative views in an argument by acknowledging, accommodating, or refuting them.

1. Acknowledge an alternative viewpoint by admitting that it exists and showing that you have considered it.

2. Accommodate an alternative viewpoint by acknowledging readers’ concerns, accepting some of them, and incorporating them into your argument.

3. Refute an opposing viewpoint by demonstrating the weakness of the opponent’s argument.

EXERCISE 20.4

IDENTIFYING OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

For the three claims listed in Exercise 20.3, identify opposing viewpoints and consider how you could acknowledge, accommodate, or refute them.

The following readings demonstrate the techniques for writing effective argument essays discussed above. The first reading is annotated to point out how Noah Smith makes an arguable claim, provides reasons and evidence in support of his claim, and responds to alternative views. As you read the second essay, pay particular attention to the logic of the argument and the strategies S.K. uses to appeal to readers.

READING

Tipping Has Hidden Benefits for Servers and Customers

Noah Smith

Title: Clearly identifies issue

Noah Smith is an opinion columnist for Bloomberg News, a blogger, and an assistant professor of finance at Stony Brook University. The essay below appeared in the South Carolina Post and Courier in 2015.

Before Reading

1. Preview: Use the steps listed in Chapter 2.

2. Connect: As a customer, do you like or dislike tipping? Why?

While Reading

Study the annotations that accompany the reading to discover how the essay illustrates the characteristics of effective cause-and-effect writing.

Introduction: Presents issue (tipping), establishes anti-tipping position, and hints at own view that “hidden” issues are at stake

Thesis

1If you want to get economics pundits excited, bring up the issue of tipping. Most of my fellow pundits despise tipping, the way they despise the electoral college and the penny. Well, the pundits are sure to be rejoicing: Danny Meyer’s Union Square Hospitality Group, which runs more than a dozen restaurant chains, recently said it will eliminate tipping at all of its establishments. The end of tipping would bring American restaurant culture closer to the global standard. But the celebration in the press may be premature. The issue of tipping is a lot more complicated than it seems, and it is not clear that its death would be a good thing.

Topic sentence: Introduces reasons to like tipping

2Basic economic theory gives us several reasons to like tipping. First, tips are under the table, which allows restaurants, servers and customers all to dodge a little bit of taxes. Since taxes distort the economy to some degree, theoretically this means that tipping increases efficiency. Of course, it is unfair to allow certain types of businesses, such as restaurants, hotels and taxicabs, to selectively evade taxation.

Reason 1 to like tipping; anti-tipping response follows

Topic sentence: Reason 2 to like tipping, supported by evidence: facts from federal law

Anti-tipping response follows with evidence (from experts—“economists”)

3Another good thing about tipping is that it can make minimum wage laws less burdensome. Federal law allows restaurants to pay a lower minimum wage, a break known as a tip credit, if wait staff are expected to make up the difference in gratuities. When economists looked at what happened when the tip credit was decreased, they found that employment went down for servers. So the end of tipping culture will mean minimum wage laws take a bigger bite out of employment. That is something to think about as the nationwide campaign for $15 minimum wages gathers force.

Topic sentence: Reason 3 to like tipping

Transition: Introduces reasons for anti-tipping view

4A third reason to like tipping is that it can be used as a reward for good service. That would be a form of pay for performance—customers would give bigger tips to better wait staff, which would incentivize better service and draw better servers into the industry. The trouble is, both casual experience and data suggest that tips are pretty random and unfair.

Topic sentence: Reason 1 for anti-tipping view

5Most of the tips we leave are determined by social convention. In the past, the standard was 15 percent. These days, it is 20 percent. That number has nothing to do with how good a server is. In addition, percentage tips are grossly unfair, since it pays lots of money to a server at an expensive restaurant and very little money to one at a cheap restaurant, even though these two servers often provide exactly the same quality of service.

Topic sentence: Reason 2 for anti-tipping view

6Tips are also affected by random factors such as whether the customer is paying by cash or by credit or debit card. For these reasons, many economists claim that tip size is only very weakly related to the quality of service.

Transition: Introduces writer’s view Thesis

7So tips may seem unfair, but probably give the restaurant industry—and wait staff employment—a boost. But here is where things get complicated. Tipping also probably has a number of effects that are not captured by this tradeoff, or by standard economic theory.

Topic sentence: Introduces refutation of economists’ view

“Hidden” reason 1 for writer’s pro-tipping view

8Economists typically assume that when you pay for a service, the way you pay does not make a difference to you. That assumption is probably wrong in the case of tipping. When customers leave a tip, they often get a sense of satisfaction from the idea that they gave money directly to a poor, hard-working person instead of to a big faceless corporation. Many of us like knowing that some of the money we pay will go directly into the server’s pocket, instead of going through the vast, complex machinery of corporate accounting.

Topic sentence: “Hidden” reason 2 for pro-tipping view

Evidence: Support based on interpretation of fact

9Econ 101 just does not deal with the personal bond that buyers and sellers can feel as the result of a transaction. But in the real world, that can make a big difference. Research shows that servers who draw smiley faces on checks get higher tips. Those customers are not tipping for a smiley face—they are tipping because it feels good to pay money to another human being with whom they feel they have shared a personal interaction.

Conclusion: Goes beyond thesis to make broader claim of fact and value

10I believe that economics has made a big mistake by ignoring the utility humans get from the method of exchange. Tipping is just one tiny example. Personal relationships between sales workers and customers, or between purchasers and suppliers, or between bosses and employees, are emotionally important to us. A huge amount of economic activity is probably driven by that emotional importance. There is no reason economics couldn’t take that into account, but it is almost always ignored.

Returns to tipping and offers solution

11So I think tipping is a more complicated phenomenon than the pundits believe. Standard economics simply doesn’t give us the answer. The real solution is for some businesses, such as Union Square Hospitality Group, to experiment with no-tip service, and see whether customers like it.

Visualize an Argument Essay: Create a Graphic Organizer

Graphic Organizer 20.1 will help you analyze arguments as well as plan those that you write. Unlike the graphic organizers in Part 3, this organizer does not necessarily show the order in which an argument is presented. Some arguments, for example, may begin with a claim, whereas others may start with evidence or opposing viewpoints. In addition, not every element will appear in every argument. Thus you will likely need to adapt this organizer to fit the essays you analyze and write.

For more on creating a graphic organizer, see Chapter 2.

READING

The Case against Tipping

S.K.

The essay that follows first appeared as a blog post on the Web site of the Economist, a weekly British publication devoted to keeping its readers well-informed about global news, especially economic news. Subscribing to the idea that what is written is more important than the person who writes it, and because many of its articles are debated and edited by many, the newspaper does not identify its journalists. It identifies writers of blog posts only to avoid confusion if posts adopt differing positions on the same issue. Thus, we know only the initials of the author of “The Case against Tipping.” Before reading, preview and make connections by thinking about your tipping habits. Why do you tip a server? How do you determine how much to tip? While reading, notice how S.K. provides reasons for abolishing tipping and anticipates possible counterarguments.

1Would you like a smile with your burger and fries? That will be 15% extra. These days anything less in America will earn you either shame or a pointed question from an irate server. But on October 14th Danny Meyer, head of Union Square Hospitality, a restaurant group, announced that he would put an end to tips in his eateries (B.R). This will not affect his customers’ wallets; prices will rise to offset the banned tips. But it is good news for America.

2Mr. Meyer is going against a trend that started in America just after the civil war. Tipping first caught on in Europe, where guests in fancy British houses would be threatened with gravy on their breeches if they failed to tip the footman. It spread across the pond as American holiday-makers returned to show off exotic European fashions. Once employers responded by slashing wages, workers worked hard to make sure they got their tips. In 1918, 100 waiters were arrested for poisoning the soup of prominent anti-tippers.

3Today, tipping is entrenched. According to the Economic Policy Institute, 4.3 million Americans rely on the generosity of tippers to scrape a living. The idea seems like a good one. If the customer knows best, then who better to monitor and reward the performance of the servers? Without a tip on offer, waiters might be reluctant to fetch endless glasses of tap water with a smile.

4But the system is flawed. Tips are paid after the service is provided, allowing opportunistic stingies to scarper, free-riding on the generosity of others. Society tries to stop this by imposing a strong social norm on diners—tip much less than 15—20% and either be engulfed with shame, or face disapproval from your date. But this strong social norm undermines the original rationale for tips as a way to incentivize excellent service. Studies of tipping have found that diners do part with more cash when they feel they have been better served, but not much. A study from 2000 (Lynn and McCall) found that differences in customer-service ratings accounted for only 1—5% of the variation in dining parties’ tips. So much for performance-related pay. A country like Japan, where tipping is seen as rude and the service is excellent, shows that you don’t need to tip to be well-looked-after.

5As well as not taking their motivational duties seriously, customers reward waiters for all manner of arbitrary things. Studies suggest that tips are larger when diners are presented with a good weather forecast, when the bill is presented on a tray embossed with a credit card insignia, when their waitress is blonde (Guéguen), and (as found in France) when she is wearing a red top. A recent study found that attractive servers earned $1,261 more in tips per year than unattractive ones. Worse, tipping is a vehicle for customers’ prejudices to infiltrate into pay. Gender and race influence the size of tips; black servers are tipped less (Lynn et al.), and a study in 2011 found that for anything less than “exceptional service,” women’s tips were smaller. Even if tipping does lead to better service, letting discrimination sneak round the law is wrong.

6Mr. Meyer’s motive for scrapping tips was the bind they put him in when setting pay. Laws limit what greedy managers can siphon off for themselves, but also the extent to which chefs and other back-room staff—who play just as big a part in the meal waiters do—can share the customers’ cash. No wonder there are chef shortages in New York. Managers are right to demand to set pay as they please.

7Americans are caught in a nasty cycle of low pay justifying tips and tips justifying low pay. It is time to break out. Restaurateurs are best placed to lead the way. Laws passed in the 1900s to ban tipping were repealed as they were unenforceable. And a diner’s lone act of defiance will only sap the income of the hard-working waiter. Servers scared of being stiffed can take comfort from the knowledge that Mr. Meyer banned smoking in his restaurants long before a general prohibition was passed. And who knows, customers might even find the human service sweeter when it does not have to be bought.

Links

✵ B.R. “A New York Restaurateur Bans Tipping.” The Economist, 15 Oct. 2015, www.economist.com/gulliver/2015/10/15/a-new-york-restaurateur-bans-tipping.

✵ Guéguen, Nicolas. “Hair Color and Wages: Waitresses with Blond Hair Have More Fun.” The Journal of Socio-Economics, vol. 41, no. 4 (2012), pp. 370—72, doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2012.04.012.

✵ Lynn, Michael, and Michael McCall. “Gratitude and Gratuity: A Meta-analysis of Research on the Service-Tipping Relationship.” The Journal of Socio-Economics, vol. 29, no. 2 (2000), pp. 203—14, scholarship.sha.cornell.edu/articles/152.

✵ Lynn, Michael, et al. “Consumer Racial Discrimination in Tipping: A Replication and Extension.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 1045—60, scholarship.sha.cornell.edu/articles/27.

EXERCISE 20.5

DRAWING A GRAPHIC ORGANIZER

Using Graphic Organizer 20.1 or 20.2 as a basis, draw a graphic organizer for “Tipping Has Hidden Benefits for Servers and Customers.”

GRAPHIC ORGANIZER 20.1 The Basic Structure of an Argument Essay

The basic structure includes Title, Introduction, Claim, Body, and Conclusion. Introduction: Issue. Background information. Definition of terms. Claim: Thesis statement (The thesis statement may appear anywhere within the argument.) Body: Reasons and Evidence, Emotional Appeal, and Opposing Viewpoints. (1) Reasons and Evidence includes Reason 1, Reason 2, and Reason 3. Each reason connects to types of evidence. (2) Emotional Appeals includes Need or value 1, Need or value 2, and Need or value 3. (3) Opposing Viewpoints includes Opposing View 1 and Opposing View 2. Each Opposing view connects to Acknowledgement, accommodation, or refutation. Conclusion: Restatement of claim. Final appeal to needs or values. Urging readers to take action. The process from title to conclusion leads through introduction, claim, and body, respectively.

GRAPHIC ORGANIZER 20.2 The Structure of “The Case against Tipping”

The basic parts include, Title, Introduction, Claim, Body, and Conclusion. Title: The Case against Tipping. Introduction: Issue: Tipping, Background: Head of Union Square Hospitality ends tipping in his restaurants. Tipping began in Europe and spread to America. In United States, 4.3 million depend on tips. Claim: The system of tipping is flawed. Body includes Reason 1, Reason 2, Reason 3, Emotional Appeals, Alternate Viewpoint 1, and Alternate Viewpoint 2. Each reason connects to an evidence and each viewpoint connects to a refutation. The reasons and evidences are as follows. Reason 1: Tips are paid after service has been rendered. Evidence: Allows stingy people to skip tipping without service suffering. Social norms for tipping 15 to 20 percent pressure people to tip. Strong social norm undermines motivation of tipping for good service. Reason 2: Customers are arbitrary tippers. Evidence: Tips increase — in good weather, when bill presented on embossed tray, when waitress is blonde, when waitress wears red (France). Studies show that — attractive servers get better tips, Black and female servers get lower tips. Reason 3: Laws limit how much chefs and kitchen help can share tips. Evidence: Kitchen staff are as important to meal’s success as wait staff. Not sharing tips may explain chef shortage in New York. Managers have right to set pay as they think right. Emotional Appeals: Needs- Self-esteem and productivity; Values: Equality, Fairness. Alternate Viewpoint 1: Diners do tip more when they feel they have been served well. This leads to — Refutation 1: Study (2000) shows customer service made only a 1 to 5 percent difference in tips. In Japan, where tipping is considered rude, service is excellent. Alternate Viewpoint 2: Tipping may lead to better service. This leads to — Refutation 2: Discriminatory tipping practices are wrong. Conclusion: For the sake of customers, employees, and managers, it is time for restaurateurs to take the lead in banning tipping. The process from title to conclusion leads through introduction, claim, and body, respectively.

PREWRITING DRAFTING REVISING EDITING & PROOFREADING

A Guided Writing Assignment*

ARGUMENT

The following guide will lead you through the process of writing an argument essay. Although the assignment focuses on argument, you will probably need to use one or more other patterns of development in order to argue effectively for your position.

✵ * The writing process is recursive; that is, you may find yourself revising as you draft or prewriting as you revise. This is especially true when writing on a computer. Your writing process may also differ from project to project or from that of your classmates.

Your Essay Assignment

Take a position on a controversial issue and write an argument that makes a narrowly focused arguable claim, offers logical supporting reasons and evidence that readers will find convincing, appeals to readers’ needs and values, and takes alternative viewpoints into consideration. You may choose an issue that interests you or your readers or select one from the following list:

✵ virtual learning replacing traditional face-to-face classes

✵ quotas to increase the number of men admitted to colleges

✵ paying college athletes

✵ providing a free college education to prisoners

✵ donating kidneys to save the lives of others

✵ an environmental problem or issue in your community

✵ mandatory drug testing for high school extracurricular activities

PREWRITING

1 Choose and narrow a controversial issue.

To check whether an issue is controversial, try the following:

✵ Alone or with a classmate, brainstorm different sides of the issue.

✵ Draw an idea map of the issue, connecting ideas as they come to mind.

✵ Talk with experts; ask them to give you a sense of the main positions on the issue.

✵ Google your issue plus blog. Then scan your results to get a sense of the positions expressed.

The issues listed in the assignment, and most of the issues you are likely to come up with initially, are very broad. Try one or more of these strategies to narrow the issue you have chosen:

✵ Use a branching diagram. Type your issue at the left, and then subdivide the topic into three or more categories on the right. Choose a subcategory and repeat the process.

✵ Ask yourself the who, what, where, when, why, and how questions to focus your attention on particular aspects of the issue.

✵ Freewrite about your topic, and then read what you’ve written.

Then consider whether you can explore your topic fully in a brief essay. If not, try another narrowing strategy.

2 Consider your purpose, audience, and point of view.

Use appropriate idea-generating strategies to generate evidence and appeals that will be most effective given your readers. For example, you may wish to freewrite, create lists or columns, or discuss these issues with classmates.

Purpose: What do you want to happen as a result of your argument?

… change readers’ minds?

… make readers more certain of their beliefs?

… encourage readers to consider your point of view?

… inspire readers to take a specific action?

Audience: Who are your readers, and how best can you tailor your argument to them? Ask yourself questions like these:

✵ What do my readers already know about the issue?

✵ Is my audience likely to agree, be neutral/wavering, or disagree with my position?

✵ What needs are likely to affect my readers’ position on the issue? What values do my readers hold that are likely to affect their views? What shared needs or values can I use to establish common ground with my readers?

Point of view: What point of view is most appropriate to your position and purpose and to your relationship with your readers?

✵ The first person will help your readers feel close to you and accept you or your experiences as part of your argument.

✵ The second person may help you establish a familiarity with your audience.

✵ The third person works well when you want to establish an objective, impersonal tone.

3 Explore your issue.

To come to a more nuanced understanding, explore your issue thoroughly before taking a position:

1. Make a tentative claim and list reasons that support it. Then switch sides, and brainstorm reasons and evidence to support an alternative view.

2. Create a table with three columns. In the center column, type your issue; in the first column list pros and in the third, cons.

3. Conduct a mock argument with a classmate. Choose opposing views on the issue and defend your positions.

Use the ideas you come up with when drafting your argument.

4 Research your issue.

✵ Find books from reliable publishers on your issue.

✵ Find articles in academic journals and well-respected magazines and newspapers on your issue.

✵ Search YouTube to find news programs and documentaries on your issue.

✵ Search your issue on Google Scholar and examine the first few pages of results.

Then take notes on the most relevant sources to use when drafting your argument. (Hint: Sources can not only provide evidence to support your position; they can also provide background information and deepen your insight into a range of viewpoints.)

Note: To avoid accidental plagiarism, be sure to enclose quotations in quotation marks and use your own words and sentences when summarizing and paraphrasing information from sources. Also record all publication details you will need to cite your sources (author, title, publisher and site, publication date, page numbers, and so on).

5 Consider alternative viewpoints.

Drawing on your research, brainstorm reasons those holding alternative positions would be likely to offer. Choose the reasons your readers are likely to find most persuasive, and then decide whether you should acknowledge, accommodate, or refute those reasons:

✵ Acknowledge an opposing viewpoint by mentioning it in your claim.

The sentence reads, “Although speed-limit laws are intended to save lives, the conditions that apply to specific highways should be taken into account when enforcing them.” In the above sentence, the phrase, "Although speed-limit laws are intended to save lives," acknowledges an alternative view.

Doing so shows that you take the view seriously but that you think your claim outweighs it.

✵ Accommodate an alternative viewpoint by finding a portion of the opposing argument that you can build into your argument.

The sentence reads, “Clearly, poor instruction in high school must take some of the blame for so many high school graduates being unprepared for college. But with class sizes in many high schools in our district now exceeding thirty-five, even the most conscientious teachers struggle to educate all of their students.” In the above sentence, "Poor instruction in high school must take some of the blame," accommodates an alternative view.

✵ Refute an alternative viewpoint by pointing out problems or flaws in your opponent’s reasoning or evidence. You could do the following:

✵ - Give a counterexample (an exception to the opposing view).

✵ - Question the opponent’s facts by presenting alternative facts or statistics or an alternative interpretation.

✵ - Question the credibility of “experts.”

✵ - Question outdated examples, facts, or statistics.

✵ - Present the full context of statistics or quotations.

✵ - Point to any examples of faulty or fallacious reasoning, such as examples that are not representative (sweeping generalization) or conclusions based on too little evidence (hasty generalization). (For more on fallacious reasoning, see Table 19.2.)

Collaboration. In small groups, take turns offering examples that show how each member plans to acknowledge, accommodate, or refute opposing views; critique those strategies; and suggest more effective approaches. Then work independently to list opposing viewpoints for your own argument and develop strategies for dealing with the opposition.

DRAFTING

6 Draft your thesis statement.

Be sure your thesis

✵ makes an arguable claim

✵ is specific enough to explore fully

✵ avoids absolutes

Here is an example of a thesis that is arguable, specific, and appropriately limited:

Although the carelessness of merchants and electronic tampering contribute to the problem, U.S. consumers are largely to blame for the recent increase in credit card fraud.

7 Choose a line of reasoning and a method of organization.

Choose a line of reasoning that best suits your audience:

✵ Inductive reasoning allows readers to draw their own conclusions based on the evidence you present and so may work best with readers who disagree with your position.

✵ Deductive reasoning may work best with readers who agree or are neutral or wavering; readers who disagree with your position may feel railroaded by this approach.

Here are four common ways to organize an argument:

Method 1 works best with agreeing audiences, methods 2 and 3 with neutral or wavering audiences, and method 4 with disagreeing audiences.

Also decide how to arrange your reasons and evidence as well as the alternative views you canvass: From strongest to weakest? Most to least obvious? Most to least familiar? Draw graphic organizers or make outlines to try out each alternative.

8 Draft your argument essay.

Use the following guidelines to keep your essay on track:

✵ Your introduction should identify the issue, offer needed background, define terms that may be misunderstood, engage readers, and create goodwill. (Try opening with an attention-getting fact, statistic, or quotation; an engaging anecdote or story; or counterarguments your readers are likely to accept.) Most argument essays also include a thesis statement in which the writer states her or his claim.

✵ Your body paragraphs should state your reasons (one per paragraph) and provide appropriate supporting evidence. Body paragraphs should also acknowledge, accommodate, or refute compelling alternatives.

✵ Use transitions such as also and in addition to move clearly from reason to reason; use transitional sentences such as, “Those opposed to the death penalty claim …,” to introduce an opposing viewpoint and, “Contrary to what those in favor of the death penalty maintain …,” to signal a refutation.

Cite sources of all quotations, summaries, or paraphrases of ideas or information, using an appropriate citation style. (See Chapter 23.)

Finally, establish an appropriate tone: For a serious issue, use a serious, even somber, tone; for a call to action, use an energetic, enthusiastic tone; with a disagreeing audience, use a friendly, nonthreatening tone. Avoid statements that allow no room for other viewpoints (“It is obvious that …”) and language that may insult your reader (“Anybody who thinks differently does not understand the issue”).

✵ Your conclusion should remind readers of your thesis. Depending on your readers, you might also make a final appeal to values, urge readers to take a specific action, project what might happen in the future, or call for further research.

REVISING

9 Evaluate your draft and revise as necessary.

Use Figure 20.2, “Flowchart for Revising an Argument Essay,” to evaluate and revise your draft.

FIGURE 20.2 Flowchart for Revising an Argument Essay

The revision process includes two questions with respective revision strategies as follows. Question 1: Circle the section of your essay where you introduce the issue. Do you define the issue clearly and limit it sufficiently? Do you provide enough background information? If yes, proceed to Question 2. If no, use these revision strategies: The bulleted points are as follows. Use a branching diagram or questioning to limit your issue (See Chapter 4, pp. 100—102). Ask a friend unfamiliar with the issue to read this section and tell you what else he or she needs to know. Question 2: Highlight your thesis. Does is make a clear, specific claim? Does it take a stand on a controversial issue? If yes, proceed to Question 3. If no, use these revision strategies: The bulleted points are as follows. Replace vague or overly broad words with more specific ones. Limit the claim to a more specific issue. Add a qualifying word or phrase (such as may, possibly) to limit your claim.

EDITING & PROOFREADING

10 Edit and proofread your essay.

Refer to Chapter 9 for help with

✵ editing sentences to avoid wordiness, make your verb choices strong and active, and make your sentences clear, varied, and parallel

✵ editing words for tone and diction, connotation, and concrete and specific language

Watch out particularly for ambiguous pronouns and problems with the subjunctive mood.

1. Look for and correct ambiguous pronouns. A pronoun must refer to another noun or pronoun, called its antecedent. The pronoun’s antecedent should be clearly named, not just implied.

The questions and respective revision strategies of the continued process are as follows. Question 3: Describe briefly your intended audience. Do you take into account readers’ knowledge of and attitude toward the issue? Do you appeal to readers’ needs and values? If yes, proceed to Question 4. If no, use these revision strategies: The bulleted points are as follows. Add background information. Brainstorm to discover needs, values, and experiences you share with your readers. Add reasons and evidence based on those needs, values, and experiences. Question 4: Place a checkmark by each supporting reason and a cross mark by each piece of evidence that supports a reason. Do you have enough reasons and evidence? If yes, proceed to Question 5. If no, use these revision strategies: The bulleted points are as follows. Brainstorm to discover compelling reasons. Conduct research to find solid evidence. Question 5: Label the parts of your argument. Does each step follow logically from the one before and lead logically to the one after? Is your reasoning free of errors? Does the order make sense given your audience? If yes, proceed to Question 6. If no, use these revision strategies: The bulleted points are as follows. Create an outline or graphic organizer using inductive or deductive reasoning. Adjust your organization to appeal to your readers—agreeing, neutral, or disagreeing (See Step 7 of the Guided Writing Assignment, p. 539.) Check for and correct faulty reasoning and fallacies (See Chapter 19, p. 508). Question 6: [Bracket] sections where you present opposing viewpoints. Do you effectively acknowledge, accommodate, or refute the most important opposing viewpoints? If yes, proceed to Question 7. If no, use these revision strategies: The bulleted points are as follows. Conduct research to get a clearer understanding of opposing viewpoints. Modify your claim to accommodate an alternative viewpoint. Identify and refute weaknesses in opposing viewpoints. Point out unfair uses of appeals or faulty reasoning. Question 7: Review your introduction and conclusion: Does the introduction identify the issue, define terms, provide background, and engage readers? Does your conclusion appeal to values or inspire action? If no, use these revision strategies: The bulleted points are as follows. Revise your introduction to start with a compelling anecdote, fact, or commonly held misconception. Revise your conclusion to refer back to the introduction, make a strong emotional appeal, or urge readers to take a specific action.

2. Use the subjunctive mood correctly. In an argument, you often write about what would or might happen in the future. When you use the verb be to speculate about future conditions, use were in place of was.

The sentence reads, Children of divorced parents are often shuttled between two homes, and that can be confusing and disturbing to them. In the above sentence, "that" is crossed out and replaced with “this lack of stability.”

Reading: Argument in Action

STUDENTS WRITE

Pull the Plug on Explicit Lyrics

James Sturm

James Sturm wrote this essay when he was a student at Kalamazoo College, where he graduated with a degree in international and area studies. As you read, notice how Sturm uses comparison and contrast as well as illustration to strengthen his argument.

Title: Indicates Sturm’s position on the issue of explicit lyrics

The sentence reads, “If all animal research was outlawed, progress in the control of human diseases would be slowed dramatically.” In the above sentence, "was" is crossed out and replaced with "were."

Paragraph 1 reads, “Many kids pass through a rebellious phase in middle school. If the teacher asks them to stop throwing pencils, they toss one more. If the sign reads ’No Trespassing,’ they cross the line. If they hear their father” (The paragraph continues on the next page.)

The paragraph is a continuation of paragraph 1 from previous page. It reads, “listening to classical music, they tune in to rap and punk rock. Unfortunately, the lyrics in rap and punk rock can be quite explicit and may have a negative effect on impressionable youngsters. For this reason, music with explicit lyrics should be off-limits until the age of sixteen.” The corresponding annotation reads, “Introduction: Sturm captures readers’ interest by talking about youthful rebellion. In his thesis statement, he clearly states his claim of policy.” The thesis statement, “For this reason, music with explicit lyrics should be off-limits until the age of sixteen,” is double underlined. Paragraph 2 reads, “Currently, the government takes a rather laissez-faire attitude with regard to the music industry. Thousands of albums are readily available to young people regardless of explicit content. In fact, the main control mechanism for protecting youthful consumers from harmful content comes from the recording companies themselves. Under the Parental Advisory campaign of the Recording Industry Association of America (R I A A), it is the responsibility of artists and record labels themselves to decide if their albums should receive the infamous ’Parental Advisory: Explicit Content’ label. Children are allowed to purchase the albums regardless (’Parental Advisory’).” The corresponding annotation reads, “Background: Sturm offers background information about government regulation and record labeling, providing a source citation.” Paragraph 3 reads, “This lack of recognition would not be a problem if the music did not produce negative effects on its listeners. Although it is difficult to prove statistically that music full of hateful content fuels similar attitudes in its listeners, it requires only common sense to understand why. That is, people are influenced by what they think about. If a child thinks, for example, that he is unimportant or unloved, then he will act out in various ways to gain attention from his peers. Problem thinking is a result of a variety of influences, including friends, parents, and the media. Negative music, if listened to frequently enough, naturally implants negative thoughts in the minds of its listeners.” The corresponding annotation reads, “Reason: 1 After providing a transition and accommodating an opposing viewpoint, Sturm presents his first reason and supports it with an example. The transition, “This lack of regulation,” is underlined. The accommodating an opposing viewpoint, “Although it is difficult to prove statistically,” is highlighted. The first reason, “music full of hateful content fuels similar attitudes in its listeners,” is highlighted. Paragraph 4 reads, “Furthermore, consider the unique influence of music as opposed to other forms of media. Unlike movies, video games, and magazines, music has a way of saturating one’s mind. Everyone knows the feeling of having a song ’stuck’ in their head, repeating itself throughout the day. Unlike a movie, which is seen once, discussed among friends, and then forgotten, a song can remain lodged in one’s mind for weeks on end. And if the songs are steeped in content such as violence against women, happiness found in harmful drugs, and hatred of the police, these themes will continue reverberating in the minds of the listener, slowly desensitizing them to” (The paragraph continues on next page.) The corresponding annotation reads, “Reason 2: Sturm presents his second reason and supports it by establishing common ground with his audience. Here and in the next paragraph, he includes transitions between his reasons.” The second reason, “music has a way of saturating one’s mind,” is highlighted. Establishing common ground with his audience, “Everyone knows the feeling of having a song ’stuck’ in their head, repeating itself throughout the day,” is highlighted.

The paragraph is a continuation of paragraph 4 from previous page. It reads, otherwise repulsive ideas. Becoming numb to such ideas is the first step toward passively agreeing with them or even personally acting upon them. Paragraph 5 reads, “Whereas adults can usually listen to such music with no behavioral ramifications, children are far more susceptible to its subtle influence. With less experience of life, a lower level of maturity, and a lack of long-term thinking, young people are prone to make impulsive decisions. Providing them with access to music that fuels negative and harmful thoughts is a dangerous decision. We live in an age where violent tragedies such as school shootings are increasingly commonplace. Although various factors contribute to such acts of violence, hatred-themed music is likely a part of the equation. Therefore, given the influential power of music and the heightened effect it can have on those still in the developmental stage of their lives, young people should have limited access to music with explicit lyrics.” The corresponding annotation reads, “Reason 3: Sturm presents his third reason and accommodates two opposing viewpoints; he refers back to the previous paragraph to create coherence.” The two opposing viewpoints, “Whereas adults can usually listen to,” “with no behavioral ramifications,” and “Although various factors contribute to such acts of violence,” are highlighted. The phrase “such music” refers back to the previous paragraph to create coherence. The third reason, “children are far more susceptible to its subtle influence,” is highlighted. Paragraph 6 reads, “Sixteen years of age would be a reasonable cut-off. Until children reach that age, they should not be allowed to purchase music with a Parental Advisory label. At sixteen, they are becoming young adults and making more and more of their own decisions. Before sixteen, they are weathering the turbulent transition from middle school to high school. This transition should not be accompanied by music that promotes rebellion as a means of coping with stress and difficulty. After reaching age sixteen, however, most young people will have obtained a driver’s license, and the freedom that it allows eliminates the possibility of protecting youth from certain music. That is, those with a driver’s license can seek out their own venues to hear explicit content, whether concerts or elsewhere.” The corresponding annotation reads, “Sturm offers an explanation for choosing sixteen as an age cutoff.” Paragraph 7 reads, “The main critique of efforts to curtail young teens’ access to explicit music is not new. Many say that it’s pointless to censor music’s explicit content because, as the R I A A’s Web site contends, ’music is a reflection, not a cause; it doesn’t create the problems our society faces, it forces us to confront them’ (’Freedom of Speech’). It is true that music reflects our culture. But it is also true that music fuels the perpetuation of that culture, for better or for worse. Guarding youth from explicit music does not equate to ignoring the issues raised in the music. It merely delegates that task to adults rather than to children.” The corresponding annotation reads, “Opposing viewpoints: In this paragraph and the next two, Sturm has recognized three opposing viewpoints and accommodates each of them. Notice that he cites a source for the first viewpoint and includes transitions between them.” The opposing viewpoints, “It’s pointless to censor music’s explicit content because, as the R I A A’s Web site contends, ’music is a reflection, not a cause; it doesn’t create the problems our society faces, it forces us to confront them’” and “It is true that music reflects our culture,” are highlighted. Paragraph 8 reads, “Another critique says that limiting youth access to explicit music would take a financial toll on the music industry. This is true, but it would also” (The paragraph continues on next page.) The transition “Another critique” is underlined. The opposing viewpoint, “limiting youth access to explicit music would take a financial toll on the music industry. This is true,” is highlighted.

The paragraph is a continuation of paragraph 8 from previous page. It reads, “force the music industry to adapt. We can either allow the youth of our nation to adapt to the music industry, or we can force the industry to adapt to an impressionable generation of kids.” Paragraph 9 reads, “A third critique is that even if explicit music were restricted to those of a certain age, younger kids would find access to it anyway. This is a legitimate concern, especially given the explosion of music-downloading software. But if not only music outlet stores but also online companies such as Amazon.com and iTunes were included in the regulations, progress would surely come.” The transition, “A third critique,” is underlined. The opposing viewpoint, “even if explicit music were restricted to those of a certain age, younger kids would find access to it anyway. This is a legitimate concern,” is highlighted. Paragraph 10 reads, “Hip-hop artist Ja Rule has spoken in favor of the current Parental Advisory system, saying, ’That’s what we can do as musicians to try to deter the kids from getting that lyrical content.’ But he added, ’I don’t think it deters the kids — it’s just another sticker on the tape right now’ (Bowes). Even some hip-hop artists agree that protecting the minds of our youth is a necessity. But until laws are passed to restrict access to this music, the ’Parental Advisory’ label will just be another logo on the CD cover.” The corresponding annotation reads, “Conclusion: Sturm quotes a hip-hop artist (and cites the source) to offer final support for his claim.” The Works Cited are as follows. Bowes, Peter. “Spotlight on Explicit Lyrics Warning.” B B C News World Edition (Italicized), 27 May 2002, news dot b b c dot co dot u k forward slash 2 forward slash hi forward slash entertainment forward slash 2010641 dot s t m. “Freedom of Speech.” Recording Industry Association of America (Italicized), riaa sales tool dot shoshkey dot com forward slash about us forward slash p h p question mark content underscore selector equal sign Freedom hyphen of hyphen Speech. Accessed 18 September 2015. “Parental Advisory.” Recording Industry Association of America (Italicized), 2016, w w w dot riaa dot com forward slash resources hyphen learning forward slash parental hyphen advisory hyphen label forward slash.

Analyzing the Writer’s Technique

1. Thesis Analyze Sturm’s thesis statement. What does it suggest about the organization of the essay? What aspect of the essay does it give no hint about?

2. Evidence What additional types of evidence could Sturm have used to support his reasons?

3. Definition How precisely does Sturm define the term explicit lyrics? Does his definition need to be more precise? Why or why not?

Thinking Critically about Argument

1. Author’s Attitude What is Sturm’s attitude toward explicit lyrics? Highlight words and phrases that reveal it.

2. Fact or Opinion Is Sturm relying on fact, opinion, or both to support his argument? Identify passages that support your answer.

3. Audience Who is Sturm’s main audience? How do you know?

4. Euphemism What is “explicit music” a euphemism for?

5. Needs and Values To what needs and values does Sturm appeal?

Responding to the Reading

1. Discussion Discuss Sturm’s proposal to ban the sale of “explicit music” to children. How are other media, such as books, movies, magazines, and TV shows, treated similarly or differently when it comes to children?

2. Journal What is the benefit, if any, of having explicit lyrics in music? Why are they needed, or why should they be allowed at all?

3. Essay Write an essay discussing the following dilemma: A middle school student wants to listen to explicit music, but it is not legally available to her age group. Her parents do not want her to have access to such music. Is there a compromise position? What advice would you offer to each side?

EXPLORE, RESEARCH, WRITE

In Chapter 19, you explored the topic of tuition-free college and evaluated and wrote an analysis of these three readings:

✵ “The Argument for Tuition-Free College” by Minnesota Congressman Keith Ellison (The American Prospect, 14 April 2016)

✵ “Make College Free for All” by Vermont senator and 2016/2020 presidential candidate Bernie Sanders (The Washington Post, 22 October 2015)

✵ “College Doesn’t Need to Be Free” by Charles Lane, an editorial writer on fiscal policy (The Washington Post, 21 May 2015)

Now put your knowledge to work by using these readings to write an essay. First, revisit the readings to make sure you understand them. Then take a position on the issue of tuition-free college. Finally, write an argument that

✵ makes an arguable claim

✵ offers logical supporting evidence

✵ appeals to readers’ needs and values

✵ addresses opposing viewpoints

Be sure to incorporate at least two quotations from the readings and cite them correctly at the end of the essay.

The Guided Writing Assignment in this chapter can walk you through the process of writing an argument essay; for help with evaluating sources, see Chapter 21; for help choosing and synthesizing ideas from sources, see Chapter 22; for help with documenting sources, see Chapter 23.

Apply Your Skills: Additional Essay Assignments

To Persuade Your Reader

Write an argument essay on one of the following issues:

1. Professional sports

2. E-waste (electronic waste)

3. Alternative energy options

4. Genetic testing

5. Presidential campaigns

Narrow the issue to one that is arguable, such as a problem that could be solved by reforms or legislation. Narrow the issue to one that can be addressed in a brief paper (3—5 pages). Depending on the issue you choose, you may need to conduct research. Your audience is your classmates and instructor.

Cases Using Argument

1. Write an essay for a sociology course, arguing your position on the following statement: The race of a child and that of the prospective parents should be taken into consideration in making adoption decisions.

2. For a public health class you are taking, you have been asked to research and write a paper making recommendations about how the state can best prepare for the next pandemic. Propose steps that should be taken and explain why you recommend them. Use sources to support your proposal.

3. You have a job as a copyeditor at a city newspaper. Write a proposal that explains and justifies your request to work at home one day per week. Incorporate into your argument the fact that you could use your home computer, which is connected to the newspaper’s computer network.