Successful college writing, Eighth edition - Kathleen T. McWhorter 2020

Drafting, revising, and formatting a research project
Writing with sources

In this chapter you will learn to

✵ organize and draft your research project

✵ avoid plagiarism by understanding what to document and giving credit to all your sources

✵ integrate sources into your research project effectively with signal phrases (attributions) and in-text citations

✵ follow the proper guidelines for integrating quotations into your research project

✵ revise and prepare a final draft of your research project

✵ document your sources in MLA or APA format

Writing Quick Start

ANALYZE

Suppose you were assigned to write a research project for a mass communication course on a topic related to human communication involving two or more people. You decided to write about issue-oriented art, examining how artists make political or social statements through their art. After reviewing numerous sources, you decided to focus on one artist — Eduardo Kobra. You drafted a working thesis, examined Kobra’s works, and synthesized commentaries on and evaluations of Kobra’s art. Now you are ready to revise your thesis, organize your ideas, and begin drafting your essay.

WRITE

Based on what you have learned about drafting and revising from earlier chapters and from your instructor, write a paragraph describing how you will follow through on the process of drafting and revising your research project. Also consider how writing and revising a research project might differ from writing a paper that does not rely on outside sources.

CONNECT

In this chapter you will learn detailed information about the process of creating a research paper. You will see that writing a research paper has much in common with other kinds of writing you have already done. Both require you to work through the writing process, while considering your writing situation.

In Chapter 21 you learned how to plan a project using sources and how to choose and evaluate useful information. Chapter 22 gave you advice on finding sources, taking notes, making sense of information from sources, and synthesizing sources as you prepare to compose your research project. This chapter continues the research process by showing you how to organize, draft, revise, and document a research project using sources. Graphic Organizer 23.1 presents an overview of the process.

GRAPHIC ORGANIZER 23.1 Writing a Paper Using Sources

"The basic structure has 4 sections: Planning a research project and evaluating sources; finding, taking notes on, and evaluating sources; drafting, revising, and formatting a research project; and documenting your sources. Planning a research project and evaluating sources: See Chapter 21. Finding, taking notes on, and evaluating sources includes the following: Conduct keyword searches; Find sources using your library search options; Conduct field research; Take notes that summarize and paraphrase; Synthesize ideas and information from sources with your own ideas. Drafting, revising, and formatting a research project: See Chapter 23. Documenting your sources: See Chapter 23." A web page screenshot shows a sample library home page. "The top left corner shows the official logo of McLibrary. The option “Ask Us” on the top right allows chat reference with a librarian. A search portal at the center helps find articles, books, media, and more. The library schedule on the right shows a text under the heading “Today’s hours” as follows. Germantown, Closed, chat available; Rockville, Closed, chat available; T P forward slash S S, Closed, chat available. Hours, Locations, and Contacts. The services mentioned under the column titled, “Research and Access"" below the search portal are as follows. Databases: By subject, A to Z; Research Guides; Opposing Viewpoints; Newspapers; Access Library E-Resources; Citations Tools: A P A and M L A. Research guides option provides access to subject guides. Another column titled, “Courses and Instruction” shows the following options: Course pages, Tutorials and Quizzes, and Free e-textbooks and course reserves. The free e-textbooks and course reserves provide access to material on reserve. The box on the right with a picture tells the user how to access the library information from home." A screenshot of a web page shows the library catalog search results of a university library. "The top left corner of the page shows the official logo of the university library, “U N C, University Libraries,” followed by the following tabs: Libraries and Hours, Search and Find, Places and Spaces, Services, Support and Guide, My accounts, and Contact Us. The search and find option and support and guides option show a dropdown menu. The Contact Us option along with the “Chat Now” option below it are accompanied by an annotation which reads, ""'Chat reference' and other contact options."" Left column of the page lists the following options under the heading “Limit your search”: Available Online 497, library location, resource type, physical media, subjects, call number, language, publication year, author, genre, about places, about time period, new titles, availability. A corresponding annotation reads, ""Options to narrow a search by location, resource type, subject, date, author, and so on."" The content of the page shows three search results: 1. Crossing boundaries: investigating human-animal relationships. A corresponding annotation reads, ""Publication information, including publisher, year of publication, and medium."" 2. Grateful prey: Rock Cree human-animal relationships. Next to each search result, there is Add to List option. A corresponding annotation reads, ""Options to save items from search."" 3. Grateful prey: Rock Cree human-animal relationships. The bottom of the page shows address and status as follows. Davis library (fourth floor) and call number E 99. C 88 B 75 1993. An accompanying annotation reads, ""Location information, including library floor, and call number."" Status: Available. A corresponding annotation reads, ""Availability.""" A web page of E B S C O host website shows a sample search results for an academic search premier. "There is a menu bar at the top of the page with the following options on the left: New search, Publications, Subject terms, Cited references, More with a dropdown list; and the following options on the right: Sign In, Folder, Preferences, Languages with a dropdown list, Contact Library, and Help. Below the menu bar on the left, there is an official logo of E B S C O host. Next to the logo shows “Searching: Academic Search Premier; Choose Databases; Suggest subject terms” under which three search boxes and tabs to search “select a field (optional) with drop down menu” and a “Search” button. Left column of the page shows Refine results which limit to “Full text,” “References Available,” and “Scholarly (Peer Reviewed) Journals” and shows publication date which limits between 1939 to 2020. The content of the page shows two search research results: 1. Comparison of methods for rhythm analysis of complex animals’ acoustic signals. 2. Vocal learning: Beyond the continuum. Each search result is followed by a download button for H T M L full text and P D F full text." An illustration shows a bibliographic information worksheet. "The worksheet lists the following information: Author(s): (to be filled in). Title and subtitle of source: (to be filled in). Title of work source appears in (if any): Journal or anthology or Web site: (to be filled in). Other contributors: Editor or translator or director: (to be filled in). Version: Edition or director’s cut: (to be filled in). Volume or issue: (to be filled in). Publisher or sponsor: (to be filled in). Publication date: (to be filled in). Location: Pages or U R L or D O I (Digital Object Identifier): (to be filled in)." An example illustrates how categories can be used to synthesize information from sources. "The original statement reads, ""The main reasons that children are physically abused are their parents’ emotional instability and family history of child abuse.” The revised statement reads, ""Some children are physically abused because of their parents’ emotional instability, family history of child abuse, and lack of parenting skills.”" A graphic organizer shows the basic structure for synthesizing sources of an annotated bibliography. There are four basic parts including definition, background, benefits, and strategies. Definition: Streamlining your life (Remy) is connected to another textbox which reads, Going back to basics (Walker). Background: Merck survey showed that people aspire to reducing job stress and increasing family time (Parachin). Benefits: Of simplicity: Adds value (Remy), Brings peace of mind (Parachin), and Creates a sense of community (Parachin), further connected to a textbox which reads, Of simple activities: Are soothing (Walker), Add balance, rhythm, “groundedness” (Remy). Strategies: For getting started: Simplify gradually; avoid drastic changes (Parachin) is connected to a textbox which reads, For financial matters: Stop regarding money as a god (Parachin), Make things you usually buy (Walker), Buy only what you need (Parachin), Simplify bill paying, and eliminate numerous credit cards (Remy). This is connected to a further textbox, which reads, For lifestyle: Focus on simple, traditional things you enjoy; for example, do things by hand that are usually done by technology (Walker), Get rid of clutter (Parachin), and Do only your own work (Remy). A graphic organizer shows the basic structure for writing a research paper using sources. "The basic structure includes planning a research project and evaluating sources; finding, taking notes on, and evaluating sources; drafting, revising, and formatting a research project; and documenting your sources. Planning a research project and evaluating sources: See Chapter 21. Finding, taking notes on, and evaluating sources: See Chapter 22. Drafting, revising, and formatting a research project includes the following: Organize your notes to emphasize your ideas; Draft your research project; Integrate information from sources to support your ideas and to avoid plagiarism; Analyze and revise your paper as a whole; Analyze and revise paragraphs and sentences; Format your paper; Edit and proofread your paper. Documenting Your Sources: Use M L A, A P A, or another required format for in-text citations and the list of sources."

USING RESEARCH

IN COLLEGE AND THE WORKPLACE

✵ For a business management course, you are required to research a Fortune 500 company and write a report on its history and current profitability. At least two of your sources must be from the Internet.

✵ For a social problems course, you are asked to identify a social problem in your area, research the causes of the problem, and report your findings in a research paper.

✵ As human resources director of a publishing company, you are asked to research editorial salaries in the publishing industry and submit a report that your company will use to decide whether to change salary levels for editors.

Organize Your Research Project

For more on using categories or a graphic organizer to synthesize ideas, see Chapter 22.

Your first step in organizing your research project is deciding what you will say and the order in which you will say it. Think about which pattern of organization — chronological, spatial, most-to-least or least-to-most, or one of the patterns of development discussed in Parts 3 and 4 of this text — will allow you to convey your ideas most effectively. As you plan your organization, think about the best ways to use sources to support those ideas. Creating a list of synthesis categories or a synthesis graphic organizer can be helpful in this regard.

In the planning stage, keep the research project’s required length in mind. Many essay assignments can be completed in three or four pages, but your research assignment might require a paper of ten, fifteen, or even twenty pages. Can you get enough mileage out of your topic and organization? If you think your current plan may not yield a long enough paper, consider using another pattern of development to explore another facet of the topic. For example, you might be able to write an effective extended definition essay on the topic of home-schooling, but for a lengthy research project on home-schooling you may need not only to define the term but also to compare or contrast home-schooling with public education, to explore the reasons parents choose to home-school their children or the effects of home-schooling (cause-effect), and so on. Below are some additional guidelines for organizing your research paper.

Arrange Your Notes

Start by considering your thesis or the categories you identified while synthesizing your notes. Then list the subtopics you want to explore in your research project, and arrange your research notes into these categories. For example, files for the thesis “Prekindergarten programs provide children with long-lasting educational advantages” might be sorted by type of educational advantage, such as reading readiness, social skills, and positive self-image.

Regardless of the medium in which you worked, be careful to keep track of which material belongs to which source as you rearrange your notes. Once your notes are organized by subtopic, you are ready to develop your outline or graphic organizer.

Develop an Outline or Graphic Organizer

For more on creating outlines and graphic organizers, see Chapter 7.

Use an outline or a graphic organizer to show how you plan to arrange the divisions and subdivisions you intend to use. Preparing such a plan is especially important for a research project because you are working with a substantial amount of information. Without something to follow, it is easy to get lost and write an unfocused paper.

Writing an outline or sketching a graphic organizer can help you test several different organizations. Be sure to save your original outline or graphic organizer and any revised versions as separate files in case you need to return to earlier versions.

RESEARCH PROJECT IN PROGRESS 6

Using the synthesis categories or graphic organizer that you developed for Research Project in Progress 5 (at the end of Chapter 22), sort your notes into categories and evaluate your working thesis. Then prepare an outline or a graphic organizer for your research project.

Avoid Plagiarism

After you have decided what source information to use, you will need to build that information into your essay. Three common methods for extracting information — summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting — are discussed in Chapter 22. In general, paraphrasing or summarizing is better than quoting unless the wording is unusual or beautiful, or if you want to provide an expert’s exact words on the topic. Quotations are also appropriate when discussing works of literature and historical (primary) sources. (More information on integrating quotations into your paper appears in the section “Use In-Text Citations to Integrate Source Information.”)

Regardless of how you integrate sources, be sure to acknowledge and document all ideas or information you have borrowed from sources that is not common knowledge. Remember that you must cite your sources regardless of whether you are using direct quotations, paraphrases, or summaries and regardless of whether the information or ideas came to you from a book, an article, a Web site, or even a conversation. Failing to cite a source, even by mistake, may be considered plagiarism.

What Is Plagiarism?

Plagiarism is the use of someone else’s ideas, wording, organization, or sentence structure without acknowledging the source. At most schools, both intentional (deliberate) plagiarism and unintentional (accidental) plagiarism are considered serious forms of cheating and carry the same academic penalties — generally a failing grade or even permanent expulsion. Buying a paper and submitting it as your own work is plagiarism, but so is copying text from a source into your notes and then incorporating it into your essay as if it were your own idea, because you no longer realize that it is another writer’s work.

Instructors may use Internet tracking resources like Turnitin.com, or they may paste a student’s paper into a Google search box to check for plagiarism, so managing the information you have borrowed from sources is crucial. The quick reference guide below can help you determine if you have plagiarized.

Quick Reference Guide to Plagiarism

You have plagiarized if you

✵ copied information word for word without using quotation marks, whether or not you acknowledge the source

✵ paraphrased information (put it in your own words and sentences) without acknowledging the source

✵ borrowed someone else’s organization, sentence structure, or sequence of ideas without acknowledging the source

✵ reused someone else’s visual material (graphs, tables, charts, maps, diagrams, and so on) without acknowledging the source

✵ submitted another writer’s paper as your own

How Can You Avoid Plagiarism?

Plagiarism is a serious matter, but it can be avoided if you follow these tips:

✵ Take careful notes. Place anything you copy directly in quotation marks. Record the source for any information you quote, paraphrase, summarize, or even comment on.

✵ Be sure to separate your own ideas from ideas expressed in the sources you are using. Use different colors, different font sizes, different sections of a notebook, or different computer files to distinguish your ideas from those of others. Or take notes in two columns, with ideas and information from sources in one column and your own comments in another.

✵ Never copy and paste directly from an online source into your paper. Instead, cut and paste information you want to save into a separate file. Enclose the material you pasted in quotation marks to remind yourself that it is someone else’s wording, and record the source information.

✵ Paraphrase information from sources carefully. Paraphrasing is an effective way to test your understanding of sources and to avoid overquoting, but be careful that when you paraphrase, you restate the author’s ideas in your own words and sentences.

✵ Record all the information you will need to access and cite the source. Include the name of the site, the URL, your date of access, and so on.

For detailed instructions on how to paraphrase without plagiarizing, see Chapter 22. See also the bibliographic worksheet in Figure 22.4, which can help you record all the information you need to cite your sources fully.

What Sources Do You Need to Document?

You must document all information and ideas you get from a source unless that information is common knowledge. But what is common knowledge, and how can you tell? Common knowledge is information that is widely available and undisputed. The fact that George Washington was the United States’ first president is common knowledge; so is the fact that the earth revolves around the sun. A good rule of thumb is that if a piece of information is available in a minimum of three reliable sources, then it is considered common knowledge. Of course, you will never be wrong if you cite the source, and you can always ask your instructor or a reference librarian if you are unsure about whether to document something. Table 23.1 also summarizes the types of material that do and do not require documentation.

Draft Your Research Project

When drafting your research project, keep the following guidelines in mind:

1. Remember your audience. Academic audiences will expect you to take a serious, academic tone and may expect you to use the third person (he, she, they). The third person is more impersonal, sounds less biased, and may lend credibility to your ideas. Although your instructor may know a great deal about your topic, he or she may want you to demonstrate that you understand key terms and concepts, so definitions and explanations may be required.

For more about audience, see Chapter 4; for more about tone, see Chapter 3.

2. Follow the introduction, body, and conclusion format, and for most research projects, place your thesis in the introduction. A straightforward organization, with your thesis in the introduction, is usually the best choice for a research project, since it allows readers to see from the outset how your supporting reasons relate to your main point. However, for projects analyzing a problem or proposing a solution, placing your thesis near the end may be more effective. For example, if you were writing an essay proposing stricter traffic laws on campus, you might begin by documenting the problem — describing accidents that have occurred and detailing their frequency. You might conclude your essay by suggesting that your college lower the speed limit on campus and install two new stop signs.

For more about placing the thesis statement, see Chapter 5; for more about introductions and conclusions, see Chapter 7.

3. Follow your outline or graphic organizer, but feel free to make changes as you work. You may discover a better organization, think of new ideas about your topic, or realize that a subtopic belongs in a different section. Do not feel compelled to follow your outline or organizer to the letter, but be sure to address the topics you list.

4. Refer to your source notes frequently as you write. If you do so, you will be less likely to overlook an important piece of evidence. If you suspect that a note is inaccurate in some way, check the original source.

5. State and support the main point of each paragraph. Use your sources to substantiate, explain, or provide detail to support your main points. Make clear for your readers how your paragraph’s main point supports your thesis as well as how the evidence you supply supports your paragraph’s main point. Support your major points with evidence from a variety of sources. Doing so will strengthen your position. Relying on only one or two sources may make readers think you did insufficient research. But remember that your research project should not be just a series of facts, quotations, and statistics taken from sources. The basis of the paper should be your ideas.

For more on writing and placing topic sentences, see Chapter 6; for more on supporting your ideas with evidence, see Chapter 5.

6. Use strong transitions. Because a research project may be lengthy or complex, readers need strong transitions to guide them from paragraph to paragraph and section to section. Make sure your transitions help readers understand how you have divided the topic and how one point relates to another.

For more on using transitions, see Chapter 6.

7. Use source information in a way that does not mislead your readers. Although you are presenting only a portion of someone else’s ideas, make sure you are not using information in a way that is contrary to the writer’s original intentions.

8. Include source material only for a specific purpose. Just because you discovered an interesting statistic or a fascinating quote, do not feel that you must use it. Information that does not support your thesis will distract your reader and weaken your paper. Images may add interest, but in most academic disciplines, use visuals only for a useful purpose (such as to provide evidence or to analyze, as for an art history project).

9. Incorporate in-text citations for your sources as you draft. Whenever you paraphrase, summarize, or quote a source, be sure to include an in-text citation. The sections “Use In-Text Citations to Integrate Source Information,” “Use MLA Style for In-Text Citations,” and “Use APA Style for In-Text Citations” can help you incorporate in-text citations effectively.

Use Research to Support Your Ideas

Supporting paragraphs in research projects have three parts:

✵ Topic sentence. Identifies the paragraph’s topic, offers reasons to believe thesis, and provides a transition from the previous paragraph.

✵ Supporting evidence. Offers examples, facts, statistics, definitions, and other evidence to support the topic sentence; it may also include supporting summaries, paraphrases, or quotations from sources with in-text citations to identify those sources.

✵ Analysis. Explains how the evidence supports the paragraph’s main point and provides a transition to the next paragraph.

For more about creating a research “sandwich,” see Chapter 6.

Each of these three parts is crucial: Without a topic sentence, readers are left to wonder what the main point is. Without the evidence, readers are left to wonder whether the main point is supported. Without the analysis, readers are left to make sense of the evidence and figure out how the evidence supports the topic on their own. Of course, transitions are also needed to connect the parts within the paragraph and connect the paragraph to the rest of the essay. The paragraph in Figure 23.1 shows this three-part structure at work. (The essay from which it was taken appears later in the chapter.)

FIGURE 23.1

"The paragraph reads, “One of the major reasons that research into animal emotions was traditionally avoided is that scientists fear being accused of anthropomorphism—the act of attributing human qualities to animals. To do so is perceived as unscientific and has been cause for much debate in the scientific community (Bekoff, Emotional Lives 124 to 25). However, Frans de Waal, of the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center in Atlanta, argues that if people are not open to the possibility of animals having emotions, they may be overlooking important information about both animals and humans. He defends his position in his book, Primates and Philosophers. The term anthropodenial, which he coined, “denotes willful blindness to the human-like characteristics of animals, or the animal-like characteristics of ourselves” (65). De Waal proposes that because humans and animals are so closely related, it would be impossible for one not to have some characteristics of the other. He contends, “While it is true that animals are not humans, it is equally true that humans are animals. Resistance to this simple yet undeniable truth is what underlies the resistance to anthropomorphism” (65). If de Waal is correct, then we should see animal emotions as on a continuum with humans’ and can infer the existence of animal emotions through their behavior, just as we infer the emotions of fellow humans.” In the above paragraph, the topic sentence is, “One of the major reasons that research into animal emotions was traditionally avoided is that scientists fear being accused of anthropomorphism—the act of attributing human qualities to animals. To do so is perceived as unscientific and has been cause for much debate in the scientific community.” Transitions are “One” and “However.” Supporting evidence is represented by statements such as “if people are not open to the possibility of animals having emotions, they may be overlooking important information about both animals and humans”; “The term anthropodenial, which he coined, 'denotes willful blindness to the human-like characteristics of animals, or the animal-like characteristics of ourselves'""; “because humans and animals are so closely related, it would be impossible for one not to have some characteristics of the other”; and “'While it is true that animals are not humans, it is equally true that humans are animals. Resistance to this simple yet undeniable truth is what underlies the resistance to anthropomorphism.'” Writer’s analysis is represented by “If de Waal is correct, then we should see animal emotions as on a continuum with humans’ and can infer the existence of animal emotions through their behavior, just as we infer the emotions of fellow humans.”"

Use In-Text Citations to Integrate Source Information

When writing a research project, the goal is to support your own ideas with information from sources and to integrate that information so that you achieve an easy-to-read flow. Along with transitions and strategic repetition, in-text citations (brief references to sources in the body of your paper) make this seamless flow possible. These in-text citations direct readers to the list of works cited (or references) at the end of the research project, where they can find all the information they need to locate the sources for themselves. When used effectively, in-text citations also mark where the writer’s ideas end and information from sources begins.

Many academic disciplines have a preferred format, or style, for in-text citations and lists of works cited (or references). In English and the humanities, the preferred documentation format is usually that of the Modern Language Association (MLA) and is known as MLA style. In the social sciences, the guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA) are often used; these guidelines are called APA style. These are the two most widely used formats and are discussed in detail later in this chapter. A third popular style, which many scientists follow, was created by the Council of Science Editors (CSE); you can find a book detailing CSE style in your college library; citation managers, like RefWorks or EndNote, can also help you format citations in CSE style.

In MLA style, an in-text citation usually includes the author’s last name and the page number(s) on which the information appeared in the source. (Use just the author’s name for one-page sources and online sources, like Web pages, that do not have page numbers.) This information can be incorporated in two ways:

1. In a signal, or attribution, phrase

2. In a parenthetical citation

Using a signal phrase

When using a signal phrase, include the author’s name with an appropriate verb before the borrowed material, and put the page number(s) in parentheses at the end of the sentence.

"The example reads, “As Jo-Ellan Dimitrius observes, big spenders often suffer from low self-esteem (143).” In the above sentence, ""Jo-Ellan Dimitrius observes"" is labeled, signal phrase, and “143” in parentheses is labeled, page number."

Using a signal phrase before and a page number after borrowed material also helps readers clearly distinguish your ideas from those of your sources. Notice how the writer in Figure 23.1 uses in-text citations to make clear where information from sources begins and ends.

Often, providing some background information about the author the first time you mention a source is useful to readers, especially if the author is not widely known.

"The example reads, “Jo-Ellan Dimitrius, a jury-selection consultant whose book Reading People discusses methods of predicting behavior, observes that big spenders often suffer from low self-esteem (143).” In the above sentence, ""a jury-selection consultant whose book Reading People discusses methods of predicting behavior"" is labeled relevant background information."

Such information helps readers understand that the source is relevant and credible.

Using a signal phrase will help you integrate information from sources smoothly into your paper. Most summaries and paraphrases and all quotations need such an introduction. Compare the paragraphs below.

QUOTATION NOT INTEGRATED

Anecdotes indicate that animals experience emotions, but anecdotes are not considered scientifically valid. “Experimental evidence is given almost exclusive credibility over personal experience to a degree that seems almost religious” (Masson and McCarthy 3).

QUOTATION INTEGRATED

Anecdotes indicate that animals experience emotions, but anecdotes are not considered scientifically valid. Masson and McCarthy, who have done extensive field observation, comment, “Experimental evidence is given almost exclusive credibility over personal experience to a degree that seems almost religious” (3).

In the first example paragraph, the quotation is merely dropped in. In the second, the signal phrase, including background information on the source authors, smooths the connection.

When writing signal phrases, vary the verbs you use and where you place the signal phrase. The following verbs are useful for introducing many kinds of source material:

In most cases, a neutral verb such as states, explains, or maintains will be most appropriate. Sometimes, however, a verb such as denies or speculates may more accurately reflect the source author’s attitude.

Using a parenthetical citation

When you are merely citing facts or have already identified a source author, a parenthetical citation that includes the author’s last name and the page number may be sufficient.

"The example reads, “Some behavioral experts claim that big spenders often suffer from low self-esteem (Dimitrius 143).” In the above sentence, “(Dimitrius 143)” in parenthesis is labeled, parenthetical citation."

Integrate Quotations into Your Research Project

Although quotations can lend interest to your research project and provide support for your ideas, they must be used appropriately. The following sections answer some common questions about the use of quotations. (The in-text citations below follow MLA style. See pp. 648—51 for creating in-text citations in APA style.)

Using quotations

Do not use quotations to reveal ordinary facts and opinions. Rather, quote only when:

✵ The author’s wording is unusual, noteworthy, or striking. The quotation “Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere” from Martin Luther King Jr.’s “Letter from Birmingham Jail” is probably more effective than any paraphrase.

✵ The original words express the exact point you want to make, and a paraphrase might alter or distort the statement’s meaning.

✵ The statement is a strong, opinionated, exaggerated, or disputed idea that you want to make clear is not your own.

Formatting long quotations

Both MLA and APA style require indenting lengthy quotations as a block by half an inch, but the two styles differ in terms of what is considered lengthy. In MLA style, quotations of more than three lines of poetry or more than four lines of prose get indented as a block; in APA style, quotations of forty or more words get indented as a block. Like a shorter quotation in the main text, always introduce a block quotation with a signal phrase. Use a colon at the end of the signal phrase if it is a complete sentence, as in the following example:

✵ . . . In her book Through a Window, which elaborates on her thirty years of experience studying and living among the chimps in Gombe, Tanzania, Jane Goodall gives the following account of Flint’s experience with grief:

o Flint became increasingly lethargic, refused most food and, with his immune system thus weakened, fell sick. The last time I saw him alive, he was hollow-eyed, gaunt and utterly depressed, huddled in the vegetation close to where Flo had died. . . . The last short journey he made, pausing to rest every few feet, was to the very place where Flo’s body had lain. There he stayed for several hours, sometimes staring and staring into the water. He struggled on a little further, then curled up — and never moved again. (196—97)

Unlike a shorter quotation in the main text, the page numbers in parentheses appear after the final sentence period. (For a short quotation within the text, the page numbers within parentheses precede the period.)

Punctuating quotations

There are specific rules and conventions for punctuating quotations. The most important rules are listed below.

1. Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.

Coleman and Cressey argue that “concern for the ’decaying family’ is nothing new” (147).

2. Use a comma after a verb that introduces a quotation. Begin the first word of the quotation with a capital letter (enclosed in brackets if it is not capitalized in the source).

As Thompson and Hickey report, “There are three major kinds of ’taste cultures’ in complex industrial societies: high culture, folk culture, and popular culture” (76).

3. When a quotation is not introduced by a verb, it is not necessary to use a comma or capitalize the first word.

Buck reports that “pets play a significant part in both physical and psychological therapy” (4).

4. Use a colon to introduce a quotation preceded by a complete sentence.

The definition is clear: “Countercultures reject the conventional wisdom and standards of the dominant culture and provide alternatives to mainstream culture” (Thompson and Hickey 76).

5. For a paraphrase or quotation integrated into the text, punctuation follows the parenthetical citation; for a block quotation, the punctuation precedes the parenthetical citation.

INTEGRATED

Scientists who favor a related scientific theory called mutual altruism believe that animals help each other because, when they themselves need help, they would like to be able to count on reciprocal assistance (Hemelrijk 480).

BLOCK

o Franklin observed the following scene:

§ Her unhappy spouse moved around her incessantly, his attention and tender cares redoubled. . . . At length his companion breathed her last; from that moment he pined away, and died in the course of a few weeks. (qtd. in Barber 116)

6. Place periods and commas inside quotation marks.

“The most valuable old cars,” notes antique car collector Michael Patterson, “are the rarest ones.”

7. Place colons and semicolons outside quotation marks.

As Buck demonstrates, “Petting a dog increases mobility of a limb or hand” (4); petting a dog, then, can be a form of physical therapy.

8. Place question marks and exclamation points inside quotation marks when they are part of the original quotation; place them outside when they belong to your own sentence.

The instructor asked, “Does the text’s description of alternative lifestyles agree with your experience?”

Is the following definition accurate: “Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society”?

Adapting quotations

Use the following guidelines when adapting quotations to fit in your own sentences:

1. You must copy the spelling, punctuation, and capitalization exactly as they appear in the original source, even if they are in error. (See the last item on this list, item 5, for the only exception.) If a source contains an error, copy it with the error and add the word sic (Latin for “thus”) in brackets immediately following the error.

According to Bernstein, “The family has undergone rapid decentralization since Word [sic] War II” (39).

2. You can emphasize words in a quotation by italicizing them. However, you must add the notation emphasis added in parentheses at the end of the sentence to indicate the change.

“In unprecedented and increasing numbers, patients are consulting practitioners of every type of complementary medicine” (Buckman and Sabbagh 73; emphasis added).

3. You can omit part of a quotation, but you must add an ellipsis — three spaced periods (. . .) — to indicate that material has been deleted. You may delete words, sentences, paragraphs, or entire pages as long as you do not distort the author’s meaning by doing so.

According to Buckman and Sabbagh, “Acupuncture . . . has been rigorously tested and proven to be effective and valid” (188).

o When an omission falls at the end of a quoted sentence, use the three spaced periods after the sentence period.

Thompson maintains that “marketers need to establish ethical standards for personal selling. . . . They must stress fairness and honesty in dealing with customers” (298).

o If you are quoting only a word or phrase from a source, do not use an ellipsis before or after it because it will be obvious that you have omitted part of the original sentence. If you omit the beginning of a quoted sentence, you need not use an ellipsis unless what you are quoting begins with a capitalized word and appears to be a complete sentence.

4. You can add words or phrases in brackets to make a quotation clearer or to make it fit grammatically into your sentence. Be sure that in doing so you do not change the original sense.

Masson and McCarthy note that the well-known animal researcher Jane Goodall finds that “the scientific reluctance to accept anecdotal evidence [of emotional experience is] a serious problem, one that colors all of science” (3).

5. You can change the first word of a quotation to a capital or lowercase letter to fit into your sentence. If you change it, enclose it in brackets.

As Aaron Smith said, “The . . .” (32).

Aaron Smith said that “[t]he . . .” (32).

RESEARCH PROJECT IN PROGRESS 7

Using your research notes, your revised thesis, and the organizational plan you developed for your research project, write a first draft. Be sure to integrate sources carefully and to include in-text citations. (See “Document Your Sources: MLA Style” for MLA style guidelines for in-text citations; see “Document Your Sources: APA Style” for APA style.)

Revise Your Research Project

For more on revision, see Chapter 9.

Revise a research project in two stages. First, focus on the project as a whole; then consider individual paragraphs and sentences for effectiveness and correctness. If time allows, wait at least a day before rereading your research project.

Analyze and Revise Your Project as a Whole

Begin by evaluating your project as a unified piece of writing. Focus on general issues, overall organization, and the key points that support your thesis. Use the flowchart in Figure 23.2 to help you discover the strengths and weaknesses of your research project as a whole. You might also ask a classmate to review your draft by using the questions in the flowchart.

FIGURE 23.2 Flowchart for Revising a Research Project

"The flowchart comprises two columns one labeled, Questions and the other labeled Revision strategies. Question 1: Highlight your thesis statement. Is it clear and specific? Is the assertion based on some of your own (and not just the sources’) ideas about the subject? If yes, proceed to Question 2. If no, use these revision strategies: Delete your thesis statement. Then have a peer read the paper and tell you what he or she believes the thesis is. Brainstorm about the main point you want to make. Review the guidelines for writing a thesis in Chapter 5. Question 2: Underline the topic sentence of each paragraph. Does each topic sentence make a point that supports your thesis? Does each topic sentence express your own ideas? If yes, proceed to Question 3. If no, use this revision strategy: Revise any topic sentences that do not support the thesis. Revise any topic sentences that rely too heavily on ideas from sources. Eliminate any points that do not truly support the thesis. Question 3: [Bracket] the information and ideas that support each topic sentence. Do you analyze or explain how this information supports your point? Do you use a variety of sources? Do you avoid strings of quotations? If yes, proceed to Question 4. If no, use these revision strategies: Rewrite to show how source material supports your point. Replace some quotations with summaries or paraphrases, so more of your research project is in your own words. Question 4: . Draw a circle around terms that are essential to your thesis or that your audience might not know. Is each defined? If yes, proceed to Question 5. If no, use these revision strategies: Add definitions where necessary. Read the circled terms and definitions to one or more classmates and ask if they understand them. Ask one or more classmates to read your project and circle any terms they do not understand."

Analyze and Revise Paragraphs and Sentences

After evaluating your project as a whole, check each paragraph to be sure that it supports your thesis and integrates sources appropriately. Then check your sentences for correct structure, transitions, and in-text citation format. Use your earlier work with Figure 23.1 to guide your analysis.

RESEARCH PROJECT IN PROGRESS 8

Using the questions in Figure 23.2, revise the first draft of your research project.

Prepare Your Final Draft

After you have revised your project and compiled a list of references or works cited, you are ready to prepare the final draft. Following are some guidelines to help you format, edit, and proofread your final paper. For an example of an essay in MLA style, see “Do Animals Have Emotions?” by Nicholas Destino. For an example of an essay in APA style, see “Schizophrenia: Definition and Treatment” by Sonia Gomez.

Format Your Research Project

Academic papers should follow a standard format that meets the expectations of the genre in which you are writing. For example, if you are writing a research report for a psychology class, you will probably be expected to include a title page, an abstract (if your instructor requests one), and headings for each of your main sections. If you are writing a research paper for a literature class, in contrast, no title page or abstract is typically required, and headings are considered necessary only in lengthy essays.

The following guidelines are common for writing projects in the humanities. If your instructor suggests or requires a different format, be sure to follow it. If your instructor does not recommend a format, these guidelines would likely be acceptable.

1. Paper. Use 8½- by 11-inch white paper. Use a paper clip; do not staple or use a binder.

2. Your name and course information. Position your name at the left margin one inch from the top of the page. Underneath it, on separate lines, list your instructor’s name, your course name and number, and the date. (If you are following APA style, include this information and your title on a title page. See “Schizophrenia: Definition and Treatment” by Sonia Gomez for an example.)

3. Title. Place the title one double-spaced line below the date, and center it. Capitalize the first and last words and all other important words (all except articles, coordinating conjunctions, and prepositions). Do not underline or italicize your title or put quotation marks around it. Start your paper one double-spaced line below the title.

4. Margins, spacing, and indentation. Use one-inch margins. Double-space your paper (including your name and course information, your title, block quotations, and works-cited entries). Indent block quotations and the first line of each paragraph half an inch, and use a hanging indent (first line flush left, subsequent lines indented half an inch) in the list of works cited.

5. Numbering of pages. Number all pages using arabic numerals (1, 2, 3) in the upper-right corner. Place the numbers half an inch below the top of the paper. (If you include a title page, do not number it and do not count it in your numbering, unless you are following APA style.) Precede each page number with your last name, leaving a space between your name and the number.

6. Headings. The system recommended by the American Psychological Association (APA) should work for most research projects. Main headings should be centered and boldface; subheadings should be boldface and begin at the left margin. Capitalize first, last, and other important words.

7. Visuals. If you include tables and figures (graphs, charts, maps, photographs, and drawings) in your paper, label each table or figure with an arabic numeral (Table 1, Table 2; Fig. 1, Fig. 2) and give it a title. Place the table number and title on separate lines above the table. Place the figure number and title below the figure. Capitalize figure and table titles as you would any other title.

Edit and Proofread Your Research Project

For more on editing and proofreading, see Chapter 9.

As a final step, edit and proofread your revised paper for errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, mechanics, and documentation style. As you edit and proofread, check for the types of errors you commonly make, and watch for these ten common problems:

1. Long, cumbersome sentences. Try splitting them into separate sentences.

2. Incomplete sentences. Correct sentence fragments (a group of words that cannot stand alone as a sentence because it is missing a subject, a complete verb, or both), comma splices (two or more independent clauses linked by a comma but without a coordinating conjunction), and run-on (or fused) sentences (two or more independent clauses joined without a punctuation mark or coordinating conjunction).

3. Verb problems. Avoid tense shifts (from present to past or future) unless there is a good reason to do so. Also, make sure the subjects and verbs in all your sentences agree in person (first: I, we; second: you; third: he/she/it/they) and number (singular/plural). Be particularly careful when words come between the subject and verb. But note that MLA and APA styles now recommend using they with a singular verb to refer to a person when you do not know the preferred pronoun.

4. Wordiness. Avoid wordy expressions (at this particular point in time rather than simply now), redundancy (dashing quickly), intensifiers (such as very or really), and weak verb-noun combinations (wrote a draft rather than drafted).

5. Inappropriate tone/level of diction. Avoid slang, abbreviations, and emoticons (☺). Aim for a clear and direct tone, and use words with appropriate connotations.

6. Incorrect in-text citations. Make sure you punctuate and format them to conform to MLA style, APA style, or that of another system of documentation.

7. Inaccurate direct quotations. Check quotations carefully against the original source for accuracy, and double-check your use of quotation marks, capital letters, commas, and ellipses.

8. Plagiarism. Avoid plagiarism by carefully quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing the ideas of others, and citing your sources for all ideas and opinions and all facts except those that are common knowledge.

9. Incorrect formatting. Check that you have formatted your paper consistently, following these or your instructor’s instructions. Check the citations in your list of works cited carefully against the models provided later in this chapter.

10. Incomplete list of works cited/references. Make sure all sources cited in your paper are included in the list in alphabetical order.

For MLA-style works-cited models, see pp. 627—41; for APA-style reference list models, see pp. 651—58.

RESEARCH PROJECT IN PROGRESS 9

Edit and proofread your research project, paying particular attention to the questions in the preceding list.

Document Your Sources: MLA Style

The system described in this section is recommended by the Modern Language Association (MLA) and is described in detail in the MLA Handbook, Eighth Edition (available from most libraries). MLA style uses in-text citations within the text of a research project and a list of works cited at the end to document the sources used. If you are unsure whether to use MLA style, check with your instructor.

The first student paper at the end of this section (“Do Animals Have Emotions?”) models the use of MLA style.

Use MLA Style for In-Text Citations

For more about using signal phrases and parenthetical citations, see “Use In-Text Citations to Integrate Source Information.”

Your paper must include in-text citations — either signal phrases (attributions) or parenthetical citations — for all material you paraphrase, summarize, or quote from sources. Many instructors prefer that you use signal phrases rather than parenthetical citations in most places because signal phrases allow you to put sources in context.

For either type of citation, use the following rules:

✵ Omit the word page(s) or the abbreviation p. or pp.

✵ Place the sentence period after the closing parenthesis unless the citation follows a block quotation. (See “Punctuating Quotations.”)

✵ If a quotation ends the sentence, insert the closing quotation mark before the parentheses enclosing the page reference.

Examples showing in-text citations in MLA style follow.

Directory of MLA In-Text Citation Models

✵ 1 One author

✵ 2 Two authors

✵ 3 Three or more authors

✵ 4 Two or more works by the same author(s)

✵ 5 Corporate or organizational author

✵ 6 No author named

✵ 7 Authors with the same last name

✵ 8 Two or more sources in the same citation

✵ 9 Entire work

✵ 10 Chapter in an edited book or work in an anthology

✵ 11 Multivolume work

✵ 12 Indirect source

✵ 13 Personal communication (interview, letter, email, conversation)

✵ 14 Literary work

✵ 15 Encyclopedia or dictionary entry

✵ 16 Digital source

1. One author

In his classic analysis of post-war advertising techniques, Vance Packard claims that . . . (58).

. . . (Packard 58).

2. Two authors. Include both authors’ names, in either a signal phrase or a parenthetical citation.

Marquez and Allison assert . . . (74).

. . . (Marquez and Allison 74).

3. Three or more authors. Include the first author’s last name followed by et al., which means “and others” in Latin.

Hong et al. maintain . . . (198).

. . . (Hong et al. 198).

4. Two or more works by the same author(s). When citing two or more sources by the same author or group of authors, include the full title in a signal phrase, or a brief version of the title in a parenthetical citation.

In For God, Country, and Coca-Cola, Pendergrast describes . . . (96).

. . . (Pendergrast, For God 96).

5. Corporate or organizational author. Use the group’s full name in the signal phrase; you may abbreviate common words when providing a parenthetical citation.

The American Diabetes Association estimates that the cost of diagnosed diabetes in the United States in 2012 was $245 billion.

The cost of diagnosed diabetes in the United States in 2012 was estimated at $245 billion (Amer. Diabetes Assn.).

o (There is no page number in these in-text citations because the information comes from an unpaginated digital source. See “16. Digital source.”

6. No author named. If the author is unknown, use the full title in a signal phrase or a shortened form in parentheses.

According to the article “Medical Mysteries and Surgical Surprises,” . . . (79).

. . . (“Medical Mysteries” 79).

7. Authors with the same last name. Include the first initial of these authors in all parenthetical citations. Use the complete first name if both authors have the same first initial.

John Dillon proposes . . . (974).

. . . (J. Dillon 974).

8. Two or more sources in the same citation. When citing two or more sources of one idea in parentheses, list the authors (or titles) in alphabetical order, and separate the citations with a semicolon.

. . . (Breakwater 33; Holden 198).

9. Entire work. When referring to an entire work, name the author in a signal phrase or parentheses.

In For God, Country, and Coca-Cola, Pendergrast presents an unauthorized history of Coca-Cola, the soft drink and the company that produces it.

10. Chapter in an edited book or work in an anthology. An anthology is a collection of writings (articles, stories, poems) by different authors. In the in-text citation, name the author who wrote the work (not the editor of the anthology) and include the page number(s) from the anthology. The corresponding entry in the list of works cited begins with the author’s last name; it also names the editor of the anthology.

IN-TEXT CITATION

o According to Ina Ferris . . . (239).

o . . . (Ferris 239).

WORKS-CITED ENTRY

o Ferris, Ina. “The Irish Novel 1800—1829.” Cambridge Companion to Fiction in the Romantic Period, edited by Richard Maxwell and Katie Trumpener, Cambridge UP, 2008, pp. 235—49.

11. Multivolume work. When citing two or more volumes of a multivolume work, indicate the volume number, followed by a colon and the page number.

Terman indicates . . . (2: 261).

. . . (Terman 2: 261).

o When you cite only one volume in your research project, create an in-text citation as you would for any other single-volume work.

12. Indirect source. Use the abbreviation qtd. in to indicate that you are using a source that is cited in another source.

As Arthur Miller says, “When somebody is destroyed everybody finally contributes to it, but in Willy’s case, the end product would be virtually the same” (qtd. in Martin and Meyer 375).

13. Personal communication (interview, letter, email, conversation). Name the person in your text, and mention the type of communication (interview, letter, and so on).

In an interview with Professor Emilio Lopez, . . .

14. Literary work. Readers may find it helpful if you include information that will help them locate the material in any edition. For novels, cite the page and chapter number: (109; ch. 5). For plays, cite the act and/or scene number: (35; sc. 1). For poetry, cite the book or part number and line numbers: (6.129—30). If you are citing lines of poetry only, use the word line or lines in the first reference and then just the line numbers in subsequent references:

15. Encyclopedia or dictionary entry. Mention the word or entry in your text in italics. If more than one definition is given in the dictionary, include the definition number in your in-text citation.

The term prion was coined by Stanley B. Prusiner from the words proteinaceous and infectious plus -on (“Prion,” def. 2).

16. Digital source. In general, a digital source is cited like its printed counterpart. Give enough information in the citation so that readers can locate the source in your list of works cited. If the digital source provides page numbers, you should provide them too. If the source uses another ordering system, such as paragraph (par. or pars.), section (sec.), or screen (screen) numbers, provide those instead.

Brian Beckman argues that “centrifugal force is a fiction” (par. 6).

. . . (Beckman, par. 6).

o If the source does not have paragraph or page numbers, which is often the case, do not add them. Instead, just cite the work by author, title, or whatever begins your entry in the list of works cited.

AUTHOR

Teresa Schmidt discusses . . .

. . . (Schmidt).

TITLE

The “Band of Brothers” section of the History Channel site . . .

. . . (“Band”).

Use MLA Style for the List of Works Cited

Follow these general guidelines when preparing your list of works cited:

1. Include only the sources that you paraphrase, summarize, or quote in your research project. If you consulted a work but did not cite it, do not include it in the list of works cited.

2. Put the list on a separate page at the end of your paper. Type Works Cited, centered, at the top of the page; do not use quotation marks, italics, or boldface for the heading.

3. Alphabetize the list by the first important word in each citation, usually the author’s last name. (Ignore articles: A, An, or The.)

4. Capitalize the first and last word of each title and all words except for articles (a, an, the), coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, so, yet), and prepositions (in, of, on, off, up, and so on).

5. Format the list with a hanging indent (usually a setting on the ruler or on the paragraph tab), so the first line is flush with the left margin and subsequent lines are indented by half an inch.

6. Double-space the whole list.

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR CREATING ENTRIES IN THE WORKS-CITED LIST

An MLA-style citation includes the following:

✵ The author (if named) + period. The first author’s name appears last name first, with a comma between first and last names.

✵ The title + period. Titles of self-contained works, such as books, Web sites, and television series, are italicized; titles of works contained within other works, such as articles from magazines or journals, are enclosed in quotation marks.

✵ “Container” information. The MLA calls any work a “container” that is made up of other works, so a journal is a container because it “contains” articles; a television series is a container because it is made up of episodes. Follow the container title and all but the last item of information about the container with a comma. End the container section with a period. If a source appears in multiple containers — for example, you cite an article that appears in a journal (container 1) via a database (container 2) — include information about the second container after the first.

o The title of the “container” + comma. Titles of containers (books, periodicals, databases, and so on) are typically italicized.

o Other contributors + comma. Other contributors may include the editor, translator, producer, actor, illustrator, and so on.

o Version + comma. The version may be the edition number (seventh edition) or name (revised edition, abridged edition, director’s cut, and so on).

o Number + comma. The number may be the volume number of a multivolume work, volume and issue number of a journal, or disk number of a set of DVDs.

o Publication information + comma. Publication information may include the name of the publisher, government agency, or site sponsor. The MLA does not require the place of publication.

o Publication date + comma. The publication date will be a year for movies and books; a month, year, and season for most journals; a month and year for monthly magazines; and a day, month, and year for weekly magazines and daily newspapers.

o Source location + period. The source location may be page numbers for a printed text, a URL or DOI (digital object identifier, a permanent code) for an online text, or a time stamp for an online video, audio file, blog post, and so on.

✵ Additional information + period. You may decide to include original publication information for a reprinted book (if relevant to your readers), an access date for an undated online source, or a label for an unusual source type or a source type readers will not be able to identify based solely on the citation (such as a letter to the editor, a typescript, or a lecture).

"Example 1: Coles, Kimberly Anne. Open quotes “The Matter of Belief in John Donne’s Holy Sonnets.” Close quotes, Renaissance Quarterly, vol. 68, no. 3, Fall 2015, p p. 899 to 931. J S T O R, d o i colon 10.1086 forward slash 683855. In the above example, the labeling is as follows. Author: Coles, Kimberly Anne. Title: “The Matter of Belief in John Donne’s Holy Sonnets.” Container 1 (journal): Renaissance Quarterly Number: volume 68, number 3 Publication date: Fall 2015 Location 1: p p. 899 to 931. Container 2: J S T O R Location 2: d o i colon 10.1086 forward slash 683855. Example 2: Morrison, Toni. The Bluest Eye. K n o p f, 2000. Originally published in 1970. In the above example, the labeling is as follows. Author: Morrison, Toni. Title: The Bluest Eye. Publication info: K n o p f Publication date: 2000. Additional information: Originally published in 1970. Example 3: Morrison, Toni. Open quotes, Recitatif. Close quotes. The Bedford Anthology of American Literature: 1865 to the Present, edited by Susan Belasco and Linck Johnson, second edition, vol. 2, Bedford forward slash Saint Martin’s, 2014, p p. 1403 to 17. In the above example, the labeling is as follows. Author: Morrison, Toni. Title: “Recitatif.” Container (anthology title): The Bedford Anthology of American Literature: 1865 to the Present, Other contributors: edited by Susan Belasco and Linck Johnson, Version: Second edition, Number: volume 2, Publication info: Bedford forward slash Saint Martin’s, Publication date: 2014. Location: p p. 1403 to 17." "The example reads, Open quotes YumTime. Close quotes, Billions, performances by Paul Giamatti, Damian Lewis, and Maggie Siff, Showtime, 31 Jan. 2016. In the above example, the labeling is as follows. Title (episode): “YumTime.” Container (T V series): Billions Contributors: Paul Giamatti, Damian Lewis, and Maggie Siff Network: Showtime, Broadcast date: 31 Jan. 2016."

A variety of models for different types of sources follow. However, you may need to combine information from one or more models to create a citation for a work you are using. (Some models included here are created by applying the MLA’s rules to create citation models they do not supply.)

For instance, to cite a reading from this textbook, you would need to treat it as a work in an edited book or anthology in an edition other than the first:

Goleman, Daniel. “His Marriage and Hers: Childhood Roots.” Successful College Writing, by Kathleen T. McWhorter, 8th ed., Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2021, pp. 403—8.

Directory of MLA Works-Cited Models

Authors

✵ 1 One author

✵ 2 Two authors

✵ 3 Three or more authors

✵ 4 Corporation, organization, or governmental body as author

✵ 5 No author named

✵ 6 Author using a pseudonym

✵ 7 Two or more works by the same author(s)

Books and Other Self-Contained Works

✵ 8 Basic format for a book (print, e-book, online)

✵ 9 Edited book or anthology

✵ 10 Translated book

✵ 11 Edition other than the first

✵ 12 Multivolume work

✵ 13 Encyclopedia or dictionary entry (print, online)

✵ 14 Entire Web site or blog

✵ 15 Government document

✵ 16 Film, DVD, or streamed video

✵ 17 Music recording

✵ 18 Pamphlet

✵ 19 Lecture or public address

✵ 20 Personal interview

✵ 21 Live performance

Articles in Periodicals and Other Works Contained in Longer Works

✵ 22 Article in a magazine (print, online, database)

✵ 23 Article in a newspaper (print, online)

✵ 24 Article in a scholarly journal (print, online, database)

✵ 25 Editorial or letter to the editor

✵ 26 Chapter in an edited book or work in an anthology

✵ 27 Introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword

✵ 28 Book or film review

✵ 29 Published interview

✵ 30 Document on a Web site

✵ 31 Posting to an online discussion list or newsgroup

✵ 32 Twitter post (tweet)

✵ 33 Episode of a television or radio program (broadcast, streamed)

✵ 34 Interview on a television or radio program

✵ 35 Episode on a podcast

✵ 36 Short online audio or video segment

Authors

1. One author. Give the author’s last name first, followed by a comma. End with a period.

Rybszynski, Witold.

2. Two authors. List the names in the order they appear in the source. Do not reverse the order of the second author’s names.

Botkin, Daniel B., and Diana Pérez.

3. Three or more authors. List the first author, last name first, followed by et al. (which means “and others” in Latin).

Lewin, Benjamin, et al.

4. Corporation, organization, or governmental body as author. List the organization or corporation as the author, omitting any initial article (A, An, or The). If author and publisher are the same, omit the author and include the publisher following the title.

National Kidney Foundation.

United States, Government Accountability Office.

5. No author named. Begin with the title. If the source is a self-contained work, such as a book, italicize the title; if the source is part of another, larger work (for example, if the work is an article in a newspaper or magazine), set it in quotation marks.

Go Ask Alice.

“California Sues EPA over Emissions.”

6. Author using a pseudonym. Use the name as it appears in the source; if you know the author’s real name, insert it following the pseudonym, in parentheses.

Atrios (Duncan Black).

7. Two or more works by the same author(s). Alphabetize the works by title, ignoring the article (A, An, or The). For entries after the first, replace the author’s name with three hyphens followed by a period.

Coates, Ta-Nehisi. The Beautiful Struggle: A Father, Two Sons, and an Unlikely Road to Manhood. Spiegel and Grau, 2008.

———. Between the World and Me. Spiegel and Grau, 2015.

Books and Other Self-Contained Works

Most of the information you will need to cite a book appears on the book’s title page and copyright page (see Figure 23.3). In printed books, these two pages appear toward the beginning of the text; in e-books, they may appear elsewhere.

FIGURE 23.3 Where to Find Documentation Information for a Book

"The text under the heading “Citing a Book” reads: Author. Begin with the author’s name, last name first. Title. Provide the full title and subtitle in italics. Publisher. Use the full name of the publisher (Houghton Mifflin or Basic Books). Omit business words or abbreviations, such as Company, L t d., or Inc. Standardize punctuation, using the word and in place of & (ampersand). For university presses, use the abbreviations U (for University) and P (for Press). Date. Use the most recent publication year listed on the book’s copyright page. The example reads, “Hollihan, Thomas A. Uncivil Wars: Political Campaigns in a Media Age. Bedford forward slash Saint Martin’s, 2001.” In the above sentence, “Hollihan, Thomas A.” is labeled the author, “Uncivil Wars: Political Campaigns in a Media Age” is labeled the title, “Bedford forward slash Saint Martin’s” is labeled the publisher, and “2001” is labeled date. Two pages show the following information: Title: UNCIVIL WARS: Political Campaigns in a Media Age Author: Thomas A. Hollihan Place of publication: Boston, New York Publisher: Bedford forward slash Saint. Martin’s Publication date: 2001"

8. Basic format for a book. Include the author (last name first), title, publisher, and publication date. If you are citing an e-book, add information about the e-reader used. If you are citing an online book, add information about the second, digital “container,” including the name of the Web site on which the online book appears and the permalink URL.

PRINT

Ward, Jesmyn. Sing, Unburied, Sing. Scribner, 2017.

E-BOOK

Larson, Steig. The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo. Alfred A. Knopf, 2008. Kindle.

ONLINE

Dickens, Charles. Great Expectations. Estes, 1881. Google Books, play.google.com/store/books/details?id=fhUXAAAAYAAJ&rdid=book-fhUXAAAAYAAJ&rdot=1.

9. Edited book or anthology. In the author position, list the editor’s name followed by a comma and the word editor (or editors).

Szeman, Imre, and Timothy Kaposy, editors. Cultural Theory: An Anthology. Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

o For a model for a chapter from an edited book, a work in an anthology, or an introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword, see page 638.

10. Translated book. After the title, include the phrase Translated by, followed by the first and last names of the translator.

Kawakami, Hiromi. Manazuru. Translated by Michael Emmerich, Counterpoint Press, 2010.

11. Edition other than the first. Indicate the number of the edition following the title.

Barker, Ellen M. Neuroscience Nursing. 3rd ed., Mosby-Elsevier, 2008.

12. Multivolume work. If the reference is to all the volumes in a multivolume work, give the number of volumes at the end of the citation.

Stark, Freya. Letters. Edited by Lucy Moorehead, Compton Press, 1974—82. 8 vols.

o If the reference is to one volume in a multivolume work, give the number of the volume you used before the publisher.

Stark, Freya. Letters. Edited by Lucy Moorehead, vol. 5, Compton Press, 1978.

13. Encyclopedia or dictionary entry

PRINT

Robinson, Lisa Clayton. “Harlem Writers Guild.” Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience, 2nd ed., Oxford UP, 2005, p. 163.

ONLINE

“House Music.” Wikipedia, 7 Mar. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_music.

14. Entire Web site or blog. You may not be able to find all the information for a Web site or blog that you would typically include for a book. If you cannot find all the information you need to create a complete citation, include as much as you can. If the Web site lacks an update or publication date, include an access date at the end of your citation. If the title of the Web site is very similar to the name of the organization that publishes the Web site, you may omit the name of the publisher.

LaMoreaux, Andrew M., editor. The Huntington Archive of Buddhist and Related Art. The Ohio State U, 2020, www.huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/.

Railton, Stephen. Mark Twain in His Times. U of Virginia Library, 2012, twain.lib .virginia.edu/.

Transparency International: The Global Coalition against Corruption, 2018, www .transparency.org/.

The Newton Project. U of Sussex, 2020, http://www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk/.

Bae, Rebecca. Home page. Iowa State U, 2015, www.engl.iastate.edu/rebecca-bae-directory-page/.

Kiuchi, Tatsuro. Tatsuro Kiuchi: News & Blog, tatsurokiuchi.com/. Accessed 3 Mar. 2019.

15. Government document. If a specific author is listed, include the information about the government, department, and agency that produced the document following the title, in the publisher position. If no author is listed, begin with the government, department, and agency. If the author and publisher are the same, begin the citation with the title.

Gilder, Carrie. Space Station Leaves “Microbial Fingerprint” on Astronauts. NASA, 6 May 2020, https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/microbiome-space-station-leaves-microbial-fingerprint-on-astronauts.

Federal Student Loans: Repaying Your Loans. United States, Department of Education, Federal Student Aid, 2015, studentaid.ed.gov/sa/sites/default/files/repaying-your-loans.pdf.

Eligibility Manual for School Meals: Determining and Verifying Eligibility. United States, Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Child Nutrition Programs. July 2015, www.fns.usda.gov/sites/default/files/cn/SP40_CACFP18_SFSP20-2015a1.pdf.

16. Film, DVD, or streamed video. Begin with the title, unless you are focusing on the work of the director or another contributor, in which case list that person in the author position. Include the name of the production company in the publisher position and the release date in the publication date position. For supplementary material on a DVD, include the title of that information, along with the information for the movie; at the end of the citation include the disc number if there was more than one disc. If you watched the video online, include the URL.

FILM

La La Land. Directed by Damien Chazelle, performances by Ryan Gosling and Emma Stone, Summit Entertainment, 2016.

Scott, Ridley, director. The Martian. Performances by Matt Damon, Jessica Chastain, Kristen Wiig, and Kate Mara, Twentieth Century Fox, 2015.

DVD

“Sweeney’s London.” Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, directed by Tim Burton, produced by Eric Young, DreamWorks, 2007, disc 2.

17. Music recording. Begin with the composer or performer, unless you are focusing on the work itself. Include the composer or performer and the title of the recording or composition as well as the production company, and the date. Titles of recordings should be italicized, but titles of compositions identified by form (for example, Symphony No. 5) should not. (See “21. Live performance.”)

Blige, Mary J. “Don’t Mind.” Life II: The Journey Continues (Act 1), Geffen, 2011.

Bizet, Georges. Carmen. Performances by Jennifer Larmore, Thomas Moser, Angela Gheorghiu, and Samuel Ramey, Bavarian State Orchestra and Chorus, conducted by Giuseppe Sinopoli, Warner, 1996.

18. Pamphlet

Rainie, Lee, and Maeve Duggan. Privacy and Information Sharing. Pew Research Center, 14 Jan. 2016, www.pewinternet.org/files/2016/01/PI_2016.01.14 _Privacy-and-Info-Sharing_FINAL.pdf.

19. Lecture or public address. Begin with the person who delivered the address, the title of the speech (if any) in quotation marks, the lecture’s sponsor, the date, and the place where the lecture occurred.

Eugenides, Jeffrey. Portland Arts and Lectures, 30 Sept. 2003, Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall, Portland, OR.

Burden, Amanda. “How Public Spaces Make Cities Work.” TED.com, Mar. 2014, www.ted.com/talks/amanda_burden_how_public_spaces_make_cities_work.

o If the fact that the source is a lecture is unclear from the information provided, you may want to include the label Lecture or Speech at the end of the citation.

20. Personal interview. Begin with the name of the person interviewed, the words Personal interview, and the date on which the interview took place.

Freedman, Sasha. Personal interview. 10 Nov. 2014.

21. Live performance. Include the title of the work performed and the names of the writer, composer, or performers; the theater or location of the performance; and the date of the performance.

Piano Concerto no. 3. By Ludwig van Beethoven, conducted by Andris Nelsons, performances by Paul Lewis and Boston Symphony Orchestra, Symphony Hall, Boston, 9 Oct. 2015.

Articles in Periodicals and Other Works Contained in Longer Works

A periodical is a publication that appears at regular intervals: Newspapers generally appear daily, magazines weekly or monthly, and scholarly journals quarterly. In periodicals, the information you will need to cite may appear on the first page of the article (see Figure 23.4), the database entry, or a combination of places (the first page of the article, the cover of the periodical, the Web page or Web site on which the article appears, and so on).

FIGURE 23.4 Where to Find Documentation Information for a Periodical

"The text under the heading “Citing an article in a periodical” reads: Author. Begin with the author’s name; the first author's last name first. Article title. Provide the full title of the article, including the subtitle, in quotation marks. Periodical title. Give the full title of the magazine, journal, or newspaper that “contains” the article, including any initial A, An, or The. Italicize the periodical title. Number and forward slash or date. For scholarly journals, give the volume and issue numbers and date of publication (often a season and year or just a year): volume 54, number 1, Autumn 2012. For newspapers and magazines, give the date: day, month, year (or month, year, for monthly magazines); abbreviate the names of months except for May, June, and July. Location. For a print publication, include page numbers; for an online publication, include the D O I (digital object identifier, a permanent code) or U R L (permalink preferred). If pages are not consecutive, include the first page number and a plus sign (+). The example reads, “David. 'Patriot Games.' The New Yorker, 3 March 2014, p p. 30 to 35.” In the above sentence, “Remnick, David” is labeled Author. “Patriot Games” Is labeled Title. “The New Yorker” in italics is labeled Periodical title. “3 March 2014” is labeled date. “p p. 30 to 35” is labeled Location." In the article, the heading, “Patriot Games” is labeled article title. “By David Remnick” is labeled author. “30” is labeled location. “The New Yorker” is labeled periodical title. “March 3 comma 2014” is labeled date. A photo at the center of the article shows Vladimir Putin and a crowd of "Team Russia" supporters.

22. Article in a magazine. Provide the complete publication date of the magazine — day, month, and year for weekly magazines and month and year for monthly magazines. For an online version of a magazine, replace the page numbers with the URL. If you accessed the article through a database, add information about the database (the second “container”) to the end of the citation.

PRINT

Butler, Kiera. “Works Well with Others.” Mother Jones, Jan./Feb. 2008, pp. 66—69.

ONLINE

Seabrook, John. “Behind the Cellar Door.” The New Yorker, 23 Jan. 2017, www .newyorker.com/magazine/2017/01/23/behind-the-cellar-door.

DATABASE

Sharp, Kathleen. “The Rescue Mission.” Smithsonian, Nov. 2015, pp. 40—49. OmniFile Full Text Select, web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.bpl.org/.

23. Article in a newspaper. Include the full title of the newspaper, including any initial A, An, or The. If the newspaper article does not appear on consecutive pages, give the first page number followed by a plus sign. If an edition name (National ed.) appears on the newspaper’s first page, include it after the date. If you read a newspaper article online, replace page numbers with a permalink URL.

PRINT

o Sherry, Allison. “Volunteers’ Personal Touch Turns High-Tech Data into Votes.” The Denver Post, 30 Oct. 2012, pp. 1A+.

o Urbina, Ian. “Gas Wells Recycle Water, but Toxic Risks Persist.” The New York Times, 2 Mar. 2011, late ed., pp. A1+.

ONLINE

Capuzzo, Jill P. “What about the Plants?” The New York Times, 22 May 2020, https://nyti.ms/3bNsRjX.

24. Article in a scholarly journal. Give the volume and issue number and the month or season (if provided). If you accessed the article online, replace page numbers with the permalink URL or DOI (digital object identifier, a permanent code). If you accessed the journal through a database your school’s library subscribes to, add the information about that database at the end of the citation.

PRINT

Matchie, Thomas. “Law versus Love in , vol. 56, no. 4, Summer 2015, pp. 353—64.The Round House.” Midwest Quarterly

ONLINE

Bryson, Devin. “The Rise of a New Senegalese Cultural Philosophy?” African Studies Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 3, Mar. 2014, pp. 33—56, asq.africa.ufl.edu/files/Volume-14 -Issue-3-Bryson.pdf.

DATABASE

Coles, Kimberly Anne. “The Matter of Belief in John Donne’s Holy Sonnets.” Renaissance Quarterly, vol. 68, no. 3, Fall 2015, pp. 899—931. JSTOR, doi:10.1086/683855.

25. Editorial or letter to the editor. Cite the editorial or letter beginning with the author’s name (if provided), and add the word Editorial or Letter followed by a period at the end of the citation. Often editorials are unsigned, and letters to the editor omit titles.

EDITORIAL

“Reopening: A Time to Celebrate Cautiously.” The San Diego Union-Tribune, 22 May 2020, p. B1. Editorial.

LETTER TO THE EDITOR

Ginn, Lee. Wired, Dec. 2008, p. 19. Letter.

26. Chapter in an edited book or work in an anthology. List the author and title of the work, followed by the title and editor of the anthology. (Include the words edited by before the editor’s name.) Publisher, date, and the pages on which the work appears follow.

Riss, Jacob. “How the Other Half Lives.” The Affordable Housing Reader, edited by J. R. Tighe, Routledge, 2013, pp. 6—13.

27. Introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword

Aaron, Hank. Foreword. We Are the Ship: The Story of Negro League Baseball, by Kadir Nelson, Disney Publishing, 2008, p. vi.

28. Book or film review. List the reviewer’s name and title of the review. After the title, add Review of and give the title and author of the book. For a film review, replace by with directed by. Include publication information for the review itself, not for the material reviewed.

Peters, Justin. “Original Sin.” Review of Spam: A Shadow History of the Internet, by Finn Brunton, Columbia Journalism Review, vol. 52, no. 3, 2013, pp. 58—59.

29. Published interview. Start with the person interviewed; include the title of the interview (if any), followed by the person conducting the interview. End with the publication information for the source in which the interview appeared.

Blume, Judy. “Judy Blume in Conversation with Lena Dunham.” Interview by Lena Dunham. The Believer, vol. 12, no. 1, Jan. 2014, pp. 39+.

FIGURE 23.5 Where to Find Documentation Information for a Source on a Web Site

"The text under the heading “Citing a document on web site” reads: Author. Include the name of the author, if provided. If the author is an organization, include the name only if it is substantially different from the name of the Web site. Otherwise, begin with the title of the source. Web page and Web site title. Enclose the titles of Web pages in quotation marks; italicize the titles of Web sites and other self-contained works. Site sponsor. Include the site sponsor (or publisher) of a Web site only if the name of the sponsor is substantially different from the name of the Web site. Date of publication. Give the most recent date of publication. It may appear on the home page or at the bottom of the Web page" "The page shows the following text at the beginning: Location. Give the permalink U R L, if available; if a permalink U R L is not available, give the site’s U R L. The text is followed by a citation example as follows. “Sirhindi, Marcella. Open quotes Jamini Roy: Bengali Artist of Modern India. Close quotes The Huntington Archive of Buddhist and Asian Art, 2017, huntington archive dot o r g forward slash Exhibitions forward slash Jamini Roy dot p h p.” In the above citation, “Sirhindi, Marcella” is labeled author. “Jamini Roy: Bengali Artist of Modern India” is labeled web page title. “The Huntington Archive of Buddhist and Asian Art” is labeled web site title. “2017” is labeled date. “huntington archive dot o r g forward slash Exhibitions forward slash Jamini Roy dot p h p” is labeled location. A screenshot the web page lies below it with the same location, web site title, and web page title. It shows a graphics banner representing Buddhist and Asian art."

30. Document on a Web site. Include an access date if no date of publication is provided.

Gallagher, Sean. “The Last Nomads of the Tibetan Plateau.” Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting, 25 Oct. 2012, pulitzercenter.org/reporting/china-glaciers-global -warming-climate-change-ecosystem-tibetan-plateau-grasslands-nomads.

“Social and Historical Context: Vitality.” Arapesh Grammar and Digital Language Archive Project, Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, www .arapesh.org/socio_historical_context_vitality.php. Accessed 6 May 2020.

31. Posting to an online discussion list or newsgroup. For a discussion group, include the author’s name or handle (if both are available, include the handle with the name in parentheses), the title or subject line enclosed in quotation marks, the name of the Web site on which the group is found, the site sponsor (if substantially different from the name of the Web site), the date of posting, and the URL. If possible, cite an archived version. If the posting has no title, label it Online posting.

Yen, Jessica. “Quotations within Parentheses (Study Measures).” Copyediting-L, 18 Mar. 2016, list.indiana.edu/sympa/arc/copyediting-l/2016-03/msg00492.html.

32. Twitter post (tweet). Include the name or handle (if you know both, include the name in parentheses after the handle); the whole post; any hashtags; the site name, date, and time; and URL.

@grammarphobia (Patricia T. O’Conner and Steward Kellerman). “Is ’if you will,’ like, a verbal tic? http://goo.gl/oYrTYP #English #language #grammar #etymology #usage #linguistics #WOTD.” Twitter, 14 Mar. 2016, 9:12 a.m., twitter.com/grammarphobia.

33. Episode of a television or radio program. Include the episode title, the program title (in italics), key contributors (writer, director, performers), the network, and the date of the broadcast. If you streamed the broadcast, include the URL.

BROADCAST

“Free Speech on College Campuses.” Washington Journal, narrated by Peter Slen, C-SPAN, 27 Nov. 2015.

STREAMED

“I’m Not Paying Attention to Any Polls.” The Rush Limbaugh Show, narrated by Rush Limbaugh, Premiere Radio Networks, 21 May 2020, www.rushlimbaugh.com/daily/2020/05/21/im-not-paying-any-attention-to-any-polls/.

34. Interview on a television or radio program. Begin with the name of the person interviewed, the words Interview by, and the interviewer’s name, if relevant. End with information about the program (as in an episode of a television or radio program).

Schulte, Brigid. Interview by Terry Gross. Fresh Air, WNYC, 21 May 2020.

35. Episode on a podcast. Cite an episode of a podcast as you would a short work from a Web site.

McDougall, Christopher. “How Did Endurance Help Early Humans Survive?” TED Radio Hour, National Public Radio, 20 Nov. 2015, www.npr.org/2015/11/20/ 455904655/how-did-endurance-help-early-humans-survive.

36. Short online audio or video segment. Cite a short online audio segment or video as you would a short work from a Web site.

RESEARCH PROJECT IN PROGRESS 10

For the final paper you prepared in Research Project in Progress 9, prepare a list of works cited in MLA style.

STUDENTS WRITE

The following research project was written by Nicholas Destino for his first-year writing course while he was a student at Niagara County Community College. Destino used MLA style for documenting his sources and formatted his research project using the “Prepare Your Final Draft” instructions in this chapter. Notice how he uses in-text citations and quotations to provide evidence that supports his thesis.

"The header shows student’s name and page number as “Destino 1” at the top right corner, one-half inch from the top edge of the paper and one inch from the right edge of the paper. The paper follows double-spaced identification for the writer’s name, “Nicholas Destino,” the instructor’s name, “Professor Thomas,” the course title, “English 101,” and the date “18 Nov. 2016.” One-inch margins are maintained throughout. The title “Do Animals Have Emotions?” is centered and double-spaced. One-half inch spacing is added to the start of each paragraph. Text under the title reads, ""Somewhere in the savannas of Africa a mother elephant is dying in the company of many others of her kind. Some of them are part of her family; some are fellow members of her herd. The dying elephant tips from side to side and seems to be balancing on a thin thread in order to sustain her life. Many of the other elephants surround her as she struggles to regain her balance. They also try to help her by feeding and caressing her. After many attempts by the herd to save her life, they seem to realize that there is simply nothing more that can be done. She finally collapses to the ground in the presence of her companions. Most of the other elephants move away."" The corresponding annotation reads, ""Ask students to predict Destino’s answer to the title question and the types of sources he will use. Also ask students to consider how they might answer Destino’s question. What evidence would they need from Destino to be convinced that animals have emotions?"""

"The paragraph continued from the previous page reads, ""from the scene. There are, however, two elephants who remain behind with the dead elephant—another mother and her calf. The mother turns her back to the body and taps it with one foot. Soon the other elephants call for them to follow and eventually they do (Masson and McCarthy 95). These movements, which are slow and ritualistic, suggest that elephants may be capable of interpreting and responding to the notion of death."" The accompanying annotation reads, “Citation: Parenthetical in-text citation of a work with 2 authors. In the above paragraph, “Masson and McCarthy 95” is highlighted. Paragraph 2 reads, ""The topic of animal emotions is one that, until recently, has rarely been discussed or studied by scientists. However, since the now-famous comprehensive field studies of chimpanzees by the internationally renowned primatologist Jane Goodall, those who study animal behavior have begun to look more closely at whether animals feel emotions. As a result of their observations of various species of animals, a number of these researchers have come to the conclusion that animals do exhibit a wide range of emotions, such as grief, sympathy, and joy."" Paragraph 3 reads, ""One of the major reasons that research into animal emotions was traditionally avoided is that scientists fear being accused of anthropomorphism — the act of attributing human qualities to animals. To do so is perceived as unscientific and has been cause for much debate in the scientific community (Bekoff, Emotional Lives 124—25). However, Frans de Waal, of the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center in Atlanta, argues that if people are not open to the possibility of animals having emotions, they may be overlooking important information about both animals and humans. He defends his position in his book, Primates and Philosophers."" The accompanying annotation reads, Sources: Abbreviated title included because another work by this author cited earlier. In the above paragraph, “Emotional Lives,” “Frans de Waal, of the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center in Atlanta,” and “Primates and Philosophers” are highlighted. The paragraph continues, ""The term anthropodenial, which he coined, 'denotes willful blindness to the human-like characteristics of animals, or the animal-like characteristics of ourselves' (65). De Waal proposes that because humans and animals are so closely related, it would be impossible for one not to have some characteristics of the other. He contends, 'While it is true that animals are not humans, it is equally true that humans are animals. Resistance to this simple yet undeniable truth is what underlies the resistance to anthropomorphism' (65). If de Waal is correct, then we should see animal emotions as on a continuum with humans’ and can infer the existence of animal emotions through their behavior, just as we infer the emotions of fellow humans."" The corresponding annotation reads, Sources: Signal phrase, with author background, establishes author credentials and introduces paraphrase and quotation in the highlight title ""Primates and Philosophers""; page number follows quotation. “65” in parenthesis is highlighted. Paragraph 4 reads, ""In many instances, their behaviors (and presumably, therefore, their emotions) are uncannily similar to the behaviors of humans. Consider grief: In"""

"Paragraph 4 continues, “Animal Emotions: Exploring Passionate Natures,” Marc Bekoff provides several examples of animals who exhibit behaviors that can only reflect their grief. He notes that sea lions wail at the loss of their young, dolphins struggle to save their babies, and orphaned elephants who have witnessed their mothers’ deaths have been observed to wake up screaming (866). In his book The Emotional Lives of Animals , he includes a description from Cynthia Moss’s Elephant Memories about elephants suffering the loss of one of their group:"" The corresponding annotation reads, Sources: Titles included because 2 works by this author are cited. In the above paragraph, “Animal Emotions: Exploring Passionate Natures,” and “The Emotional Lives of Animals” are highlighted. One-half inch spacing is added to the start of paragraph 5. Paragraph 5 is indented as a quotation and reads, ""They stood around Tina’s carcass, touching it gently. . . . Because it was rocky and the ground was wet, there was no loose dirt; but they tried to dig into it . . . and when they managed to get a little earth up they sprinkled it over the body. Trista, Tia, and some of the others went off and broke branches from the surrounding low brushes and brought them back and placed them on the carcass. . . . By nightfall they had nearly buried her with branches and earth. Then they stood vigil over her for most of the night and only as dawn was approaching did they reluctantly begin to walk away. (q t d. in Bekoff, Emotional Lives 66 to 67)."" The corresponding annotation reads, Quotation: Quote longer than four lines indented half an inch and not enclosed in quotation marks; period precedes citation. In the above paragraph, “(qtd. in Bekoff, Emotional Lives 66 to 67)” is highlighted. The corresponding annotation reads, Sources: Citation for indirect source. Paragraph 6 reads, ""Diane Ackerman, a columnist for The New York Times who writes regularly about the intersection of human and animal worlds, notes that 'biologists tell of sea lions wailing when their babies have been mutilated by killer whales, of grief-stricken monkey mothers carrying dead infants around for days, of geese singing both halves of a duet when their partners have died.' Perhaps the most extreme case of grief experienced by an animal is exemplified by the story of Flint, a chimp, when Flo, his mother, died. In her book, Through a Window, which elaborates on her thirty years of experience studying and living among the chimps in Gombe, Tanzania, Jane Goodall gives the following account of Flint’s experience with grief."" The corresponding annotation reads, Quotation: First letter of a quotation changed to lowercase to fit into sentence. In the above paragraph, “thirty years of experience studying and living among the chimps in Gombe, Tanzania” is highlighted. The corresponding annotation reads, Sources: Author’s credentials included within the text. Paragraph 7 reads, ""Flint became increasingly lethargic, refused most food and, with his immune system thus weakened, fell sick. The last time I saw him alive, he was hollow-eyed, gaunt and utterly depressed, huddled in the vegetation close to where Flo had died. . . . The last short journey he made, pausing to rest every few feet, was to the very place where Flo’s body had lain. There he stayed for several hours, sometimes staring and staring into the water. He struggled on a little further, then curled up — and never moved again. (196 to 97).” The corresponding annotation reads, Sources: Page number follows quotation. In the above paragraph, “(196 to 97)” is highlighted."

"Paragraph 8 reads, ""Of course, animal emotions are not limited to sadness and grief. Indeed, evidence indicates that animals also experience happier emotions, such as sympathy and joy. Many scientists who study animal behavior have found that several species demonstrate sympathy for one another. In other words, they act as if they care about one another. It is probably safe to assume that no animal displays behaviors more closely associated with sympathy than chimpanzees. Those who have studied apes in the wild, including de Waal, have observed that animals who had been fighting make up with one another by kissing and hugging. Chimps have also been found to console the loser of a fight or try to restore peace (Wilford)."" The corresponding annotation reads, ""Sources: Information at beginning of this paragraph can be found in many sources, so does not need to be documented."" In the above paragraph, “(Wilford)” is highlighted. The corresponding annotation reads, ""Sources: Information from a source paraphrased, no page number because source is an online newspaper."" Paragraph 9 reads, ""Sympathy and caring have been noted in non-primate species as well. Researchers have found that young barn owls are 'impressively generous' towards each other, saving portions of their food for smaller and hungrier owls (Angier). Likewise, the Nature episode 'Animal Odd Couples' documents a number of instances in which animals of one species have cared for animals of another. In one example (00:25:26 to 00:31:41), Jack, a goat, led Charlie, a blind horse, around the ranch where they lived every day for sixteen years, until Jack’s death (fig. 1). The animals’ caretaker even compared Jack to the television character Lassie, describing how Jack got ..."" The corresponding annotation reads, ""Source: Title of television program and episode used in signal phrase; time stamp given for episode described, and information from source summarized."" In the above paragraph, “Nature episode,” “Animal Odd Couples,” and “(00:25:26 to 00:31:41)” are highlighted. The caption below the photo reads, Fig. 1. Seeing is believing: Jack leading Charlie (a blind horse). Film still from “Animal Odd Couples” (00:27:23). The corresponding annotation reads, ""Illustration: Figure number included in text and caption."" “Fig. 1” is highlighted in the above caption."

"Paragraph 9 continues, ""human help to rescue Charlie after he became trapped in a grove of trees following a microburst of wind."" Paragraph 10 reads,"" What makes this example particularly noteworthy is that the animals were of different species. Had the goat been helping another goat, it would be easy to assume that the act of caring was the result of what scientists call genetic altruism, animals helping others of their own species because there is something in it for them—namely, the assurance that their kin (and, therefore, their genes) will continue. This theory certainly provides an adequate, unbiased scientific explanation for why animals might care for others. However, if animals really help each other out only when doing so will perpetuate their species, then Jack would have had no genetic reason to help Charlie.|"" Paragraph 11 reads, ""There is another popular explanation for why an animal would help another from a different species. Scientists who favor a related scientific theory called mutual altruism believe that animals will help each other because, when they themselves need help, they would like to be able to count on reciprocal assistance (Hemelrijk 480). This theory is a plausible, nonanthropomorphic explanation for why animals show sympathy, regardless of whether they actually feel sympathy. This point is crucial because, after all, humans cannot actually observe how an animal feels; we can only observe how it behaves. It is then up to the observer to draw some logical conclusions about why animals behave in the ways they do.” Paragraph 12 reads, “The mutual altruism theory, however, can also be disputed. In many cases, animals have helped others even when the receiver of the help would probably never be in a position to return the favor. For example, there are many accounts of dolphins helping drowning or otherwise endangered swimmers. Phil Mercer, on the B B C Web site, reported that dolphins stopped a shark from attacking swimmers off the coast of New Zealand. The animals surrounded the swimmers for about forty minutes while the great white shark circled. When the swimmers reached the shore, they remarked that they were sure that the dolphins acted deliberately to save them. Marathon swimmer Matril Strel also believes that he was deliberately helped by pink dolphins during his 2007 swim of the ..."" The corresponding annotation reads, ""Source: Citation of a Web page includes only author’s name and site’s sponsor; no page numbers available. In the above paragraph, “Phil Mercer, on the B B C Web site” is highlighted."

"The text under the heading, “Works Cited” shows the following citations: Ackerman, Diane. “The Lonely Polar Bear.” The New York Times, 2 July 2011, w w w dot n y times dot com forward slash 2011 forward slash 07 forward slash 03 forward slash opinion forward slash sunday forward slash 03 gus dot h t m l question mark Underscore r equals 0. The corresponding annotation reads, ""Works Cited: List appears on a new page; heading is centered; entries are double spaced."" Angier, Natalie. “The Owl Comes into Its Own.” The New York Times, 25 Feb. 2013, w w w dot n y times dot com forward slash 2013 forward slash 02 forward slash 26 forward slash science forward slash long hyphen cloaked hyphen in hyphen mystery hyphen owls hyphen start hyphen coming hyphen into hyphen full hyphen view hyphen html question mark. “Animal Odd Couples.” Nature, P B S, 7 Nov. 2012, w w w dot p b s dot org forward slash w net forward slash nature forward slash animal hyphen odd hyphen couples hyphen full hyphen episode forward slash 8009 forward slash . Bekoff, Marc. “Animal Emotions: Exploring Passionate Natures.” Bioscience, vol. 50, no. 10, Oct. 2000, p p. 861 to 70, bioscience dot oxford journals dot org forward slash content forward slash 50 forward slash 10 forward slash 861 dot full. The corresponding annotation reads, Works Cited: Entries alphabetized by author’s last name. ---. The Emotional Lives of Animals. New World Library, 2007. Butler, Rhett A. “Marathon Swimmer: An Interview with the First Man to Swim the Length of the Amazon.” Mongabay dot com, 23 Jan. 2011, news dot mongabay dot com forward slash 2011 forward slash 01 forward slash marathon hyphen swimmer hyphen an hyphen interview hyphen with hyphen the hyphen first hyphen man hyphen to hyphen swim hyphen the hyphen length hyphen of hyphen the hyphen amazon forward slash. de Waal, Frans. Primates and Philosophers. Princeton U P, 2006. Goodall, Jane. Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe. Houghton Mifflin, 1990. The corresponding annotation reads, ""Works Cited: First line of each entry is flush left with margin; subsequent lines indented half an inch."" Hemelrijk, Charlotte K. “Support for Being Groomed in Long-Tailed Macaques, Macaca Fasciularis.” Animal Behaviour, vol. 48, no. 2, Aug. 1994, p p. 479 to 81. Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff, and Susan McCarthy. When Elephants Weep: The Emotional Lives of Animals. Dell Publishing, 1995. Matsusaka, Takahisa. “When Does Play Panting Occur during Social Play in Wild Chimpanzees?” Primates, vol. 45, no. 4, Oct. 2004, p p. 221 to 29. Springer Link, d o i colon 10.1007 forward slash s 10329 hyphen 004 hyphen 0090 hyphen z. Mercer, Phil. “Dolphins Prevent N Z Shark Attack.” B B C News, 23 Nov. 2004, news dot b b c dot co dot u k forward slash 2 forward slash hi forward slash asia hyphenpacific forward slash 4034383 dot s t m. Panksepp, Jaak. “Beyond a Joke: From Animal Laughter to Human Joy?” Science, vol. 308, no. 5718, 1 Apr. 2005, p p. 62 to 63. J S T O R, d o i colon 10.1126 forward slash science dot 1112066. "

"The text under the heading, “Works Cited” shows the following citations: Ackerman, Diane. “The Lonely Polar Bear.” The New York Times, 2 July 2011, w w w dot n y times dot com forward slash 2011 forward slash 07 forward slash 03 forward slash opinion forward slash sunday forward slash 03 gus dot h t m l question mark Underscore r equals 0. The corresponding annotation reads, ""Works Cited: List appears on a new page; heading is centered; entries are double spaced."" Angier, Natalie. “The Owl Comes into Its Own.” The New York Times, 25 Feb. 2013, w w w dot n y times dot com forward slash 2013 forward slash 02 forward slash 26 forward slash science forward slash long hyphen cloaked hyphen in hyphen mystery hyphen owls hyphen start hyphen coming hyphen into hyphen full hyphen view hyphen html question mark. “Animal Odd Couples.” Nature, P B S, 7 Nov. 2012, w w w dot p b s dot org forward slash w net forward slash nature forward slash animal hyphen odd hyphen couples hyphen full hyphen episode forward slash 8009 forward slash . Bekoff, Marc. “Animal Emotions: Exploring Passionate Natures.” Bioscience, vol. 50, no. 10, Oct. 2000, p p. 861 to 70, bioscience dot oxford journals dot org forward slash content forward slash 50 forward slash 10 forward slash 861 dot full. The corresponding annotation reads, Works Cited: Entries alphabetized by author’s last name. ---. The Emotional Lives of Animals. New World Library, 2007. Butler, Rhett A. “Marathon Swimmer: An Interview with the First Man to Swim the Length of the Amazon.” Mongabay dot com, 23 Jan. 2011, news dot mongabay dot com forward slash 2011 forward slash 01 forward slash marathon hyphen swimmer hyphen an hyphen interview hyphen with hyphen the hyphen first hyphen man hyphen to hyphen swim hyphen the hyphen length hyphen of hyphen the hyphen amazon forward slash. de Waal, Frans. Primates and Philosophers. Princeton U P, 2006. Goodall, Jane. Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe. Houghton Mifflin, 1990. The corresponding annotation reads, ""Works Cited: First line of each entry is flush left with margin; subsequent lines indented half an inch."" Hemelrijk, Charlotte K. “Support for Being Groomed in Long-Tailed Macaques, Macaca Fasciularis.” Animal Behaviour, vol. 48, no. 2, Aug. 1994, p p. 479 to 81. Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff, and Susan McCarthy. When Elephants Weep: The Emotional Lives of Animals. Dell Publishing, 1995. Matsusaka, Takahisa. “When Does Play Panting Occur during Social Play in Wild Chimpanzees?” Primates, vol. 45, no. 4, Oct. 2004, p p. 221 to 29. Springer Link, d o i colon 10.1007 forward slash s 10329 hyphen 004 hyphen 0090 hyphen z. Mercer, Phil. “Dolphins Prevent N Z Shark Attack.” B B C News, 23 Nov. 2004, news dot b b c dot co dot u k forward slash 2 forward slash hi forward slash asia hyphenpacific forward slash 4034383 dot s t m. Panksepp, Jaak. “Beyond a Joke: From Animal Laughter to Human Joy?” Science, vol. 308, no. 5718, 1 Apr. 2005, p p. 62 to 63. J S T O R, d o i colon 10.1126 forward slash science dot 1112066.

"The page shows one citation as follows. Wilford, John Noble. “Almost Human, and Sometimes Smarter.” The New York Times, 17 Apr. 2007, w w w dot n y times dot com forward slash 2007 forward slash 04 forward slash 17 forward slash science forward slash 17 chimp dot h t m l question mark underscore r equals 0"

Document Your Sources: APA Style

The system described in this section is recommended by the American Psychological Association (APA) and is described in detail in The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Seventh Edition (available from most libraries). APA style uses in-text citations within the text of a research project and a list of references at the end to document the sources used. If you are unsure whether to use APA style, check with your instructor. The student paper that appears at the end of this section (“Schizophrenia: Definition and Treatment”) uses APA style.

Use APA Style for In-Text Citations

Your paper must include in-text citations for all material you summarize, paraphrase, or quote from sources. There are two basic ways to write an in-text citation:

1. Use a signal phrase (attribution) and publication date (in parentheses). Mention the author’s name in a phrase or sentence introducing the material, include the year of publication in parentheses immediately following the author’s name, and a page number or other locator, such as a heading, paragraph number (even if you have to count the paragraphs yourself), or figure, table, or slide number.

2. Use a parenthetical citation. In parentheses, include the author’s last name, the year of publication, and a page number or other locator (separated by commas).

APA style requires only that you include a page number or other locator for quotations, but it recommends using a locator for paraphrases and summaries as well, so make sure you ask your instructor before omitting them. Signal phrases allow you to put your sources in context, so use a signal phrase for most citations. APA style generally requires that you use the past tense (showed) or present perfect tense (has shown) for signal verbs. Only use the present tense to discuss results or widely accepted information. For either type of citation, follow these rules:

✵ Place the sentence period after the closing parenthesis. When a quotation ends the sentence, insert the closing quotation mark before the opening parenthesis. Block quotations are an exception to these rules; see “Punctuating Quotations.”

✵ For direct quotations, include the page number or other locator after the year, separating it from the year with a comma. Use the abbreviation “p.” or “pp.” followed by a space and the page number. Use another word or abbreviation (such as “para.” for “paragraph”) depending on the locator type you used.

SIGNAL PHRASE

Avery and Ehrlich (2008) said “nasal sounds are made with air passing through the nose” (p. 21).

PARENTHETICAL CITATION

Snorts, snores, and other such sounds are created “with air passing through the nose” (Avery & Ehrlich, 2008, p. 21).

The following section provides guidelines for formatting APA-style in-text citations.

Directory of APA In-Text Citation Models

✵ 1 One author

✵ 2 Two authors

✵ 3 Three or more authors

✵ 4 Two or more works by the same author(s)

✵ 5 Two or more works by the same author in the same year

✵ 6 Authors with the same last name

✵ 7 No author named

✵ 8 Two or more sources in the same citation

✵ 9 Specific part of a work

✵ 10 Chapter in an edited book or work in an anthology

✵ 11 Multivolume work

✵ 12 Indirect sources

✵ 13 Personal interviews, letters, emails, and conversations

✵ 14 Internet sources

1. One author

Zhang (2019) showed that “when academics are strongly motivated to teach and are satisfied with and take pride in their teaching,” their feeling of affiliation with the schools at which they teach increases (p. 1325).

(Zhang, 2019, p. 1325).

2. Two authors. Include both authors’ last names and the year in a signal phrase or parenthetical citation. In parenthetical citations, replace the word and with an ampersand (&).

Bloomberg and Pope (2017) have argued that with global warming we are facing a “kairos: a supreme moment at which one simply must act, however implausible or inconvenient” (p. 12).

Some have argued that we are facing a watershed moment, or “kairos,” in the fight against global warming (Bloomberg & Pope, 2017, p. 12).

3. Three or more authors. For works with three or more authors, list just the first author plus “et al.” in each in-text citation.

Similarly, as Belenky et al. (1986) showed, examining the lives of women expands our understanding of human development.

Examining the lives of women expands our understanding of human development (Belenky et al., 1986).

4. Two or more works by the same author(s). Cite the works chronologically, in order of publication.

Gaerlan (2001, 2011) believed that . . .

. . . (Gaerlan, 2001, 2011).

5. Two or more works by the same author in the same year. Add the lowercase letter “a” after the publication year for the first source as it appears alphabetically by title in your reference list. Add the letter “b” to the publication year for the source that appears next, and so forth. Include the years with the corresponding lowercase letters in your in-text citations. (See “Two or more works by the same author in the same year” for the corresponding reference-list entries.)

Soot-free flames can be produced by stripping the air of nitrogen and then adding that nitrogen to the fuel (Conover, 2019b).

6. Authors with the same last name. Use each author’s first initial(s) with the last name.

K. Yi (2019) has demonstrated . . .

D. Yi (2017) has shown that . . .

7. No author named. Use the first few words of the title and the year in the signal phrase or parenthetical citation. Italicize a book title; put the title of a journal article in quotation marks. Unlike the entry in the list of references, use standard capitalization in the in-text citation. (See “Work with no author named.”)

As noted in “Gluten Free Recipes” (2009), . . .

. . . (“Gluten Free Recipes,” 2009).

8. Two or more sources in the same citation. When citing two or more sources in parentheses, put a semicolon between them and list them in alphabetical order.

. . . (Hoffman, 2011; Murphy, 2009).

9. Specific part of a work. When quoting, paraphrasing, or summarizing a passage, include the page number on which the passage appears. If the work does not have page numbers, use paragraph numbers, if provided (with the abbreviation “para.”), or the heading of the section in which the material appears.

Pinker (2007) offered an explanation for why swearing occurs across cultures: Obscenities “may tap into deep and ancient parts of the emotional brain” (p. 331).

If obscenities “tap into deep and ancient parts of the emotional brain” (Pinker, 2007, p. 331), then it makes sense that swearing occurs across cultures.

10. Chapter in an edited book or work in an anthology. An anthology is a collection of writings by different authors. In the in-text citation, name the author who wrote the work (not the editor of the anthology) and give the year the anthology was published. (See “Chapter in an edited book or work in an anthology” for the corresponding entry in the list of references.)

As Pedelty (2010) noted . . .

. . . (Pedelty, 2010).

11. Multivolume work. When you cite one volume of a multivolume work, include the year of publication for that volume.

Terman (2008) indicated . . .

. . . (Terman, 2008).

o When you cite two or more volumes of a multivolume work, give inclusive years for the volumes.

Terman (2008—2011) indicated . . .

12. Indirect sources. When you quote a source indirectly (rather than from the original source), include the words as cited in along with the information for the source in which you found the quote.

According to Ephron, . . . (as cited in Thomas, 2009, p. 33).

13. Personal interviews, letters, emails, and conversations. Give the last name and initial of the interview subject or correspondent, the type of communication, and the exact date. Do not include these sources in the list of references.

. . . (J. Lopez, personal communication, October 30, 2011).

14. Internet sources. For direct quotations, give the author, year, and page or paragraph number (or other locator) in the signal phrase or parenthetical citation.

Stevens (2011, para. 5) has maintained . . .

. . . (Stevens, 2011, para. 5).

Use APA Style for the List of References

Follow these general guidelines for preparing the list of references.

1. List only the sources you cite in your paper. If you consulted a source but did not cite it in your paper, do not include it in the list of references.

2. Put the list on a separate page at the end of your paper. The heading References, in boldface type, should be centered an inch below the top of the page.

3. Alphabetize the list by the entry’s first important word (author’s last name or, if no author is named, first key word of the title). Give the author’s last name, followed by a comma and his or her initial or initials (not the full first name) and a space between initials: Myers, D. G. For works with multiple authors, list up to twenty authors’ names in inverted order with an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name.

4. Put the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name.

5. For titles of books and articles capitalize the first word, the first word following a colon, and any proper nouns (names). For titles of periodicals, capitalize all important words.

6. Include the word A, An, or The at the beginning of titles.

7. Italicize titles of books and names of journals, newspapers, and magazines. Do not italicize, underline, or use quotation marks with article titles.

8. For magazine and journal articles, italicize the volume number.

9. Indent the second and all subsequent lines half an inch — hanging indent style.

10. Double-space the entire list.

A variety of models for different types of sources follow. However, you may need to combine information from one or more models to create a citation for a work you are using. For instance, to cite a reading from this textbook, you would need to treat it as a work in an anthology in an edition other than the first:

Goleman, D. (2017). His marriage and hers: Childhood roots. In K. T. McWhorter, Successful college writing (8th ed.), pp. 403—08. Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Directory of APA Reference Models

Authors

✵ 1 One author

✵ 2 More than one author

✵ 3 Two or more works by the same author(s)

✵ 4 Two or more works by the same author in the same year

✵ 5 Work with no author named

✵ 6 Agency or corporation as author

Books and Other Long Works

✵ 7 Edited book or anthology

✵ 8 Chapter in an edited book or work in an anthology

✵ 9 Translated book

✵ 10 Edition other than the first

✵ 11 Article from an encyclopedia or dictionary

✵ 12 Multivolume work

✵ 13 One volume in a multivolume work

✵ 14 Government publication

Articles in Periodicals

✵ 15 Article in a scholarly journal

✵ 16 Article in a magazine (print, online)

✵ 17 Article in a newspaper (print, online)

✵ 18 Editorial or letter to the editor

✵ 19 Book or film review

Other Sources

✵ 20 Document posted on a Web site

✵ 21 Film, video, or DVD

✵ 22 Television program

✵ 23 Mobile application software (app)

Authors

1. One author. Put the author’s last name first, followed by her or his initials. If the author has more than one initial, include a space in between.

Myers, W. D.

2. More than one author. Use inverted order (last name, initial) for all authors’ names. Separate names with commas and use an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name.

Myers, W. D., & Myers, C.

Wiegand, I., Seidel, C., & Wolfe, J.

o For citations with up to twenty authors, include all the authors listed. For citations with twenty-one or more authors, list the first nineteen (in the order they appear on the title page), an ellipsis (. . .), and then the last author’s name.

3. Two or more works by the same author(s). Begin each entry with the author’s name. Arrange the entries in chronological order of publication.

Pollan, M. (2006).

Pollan, M. (2008).

4. Two or more works by the same author in the same year. Arrange the works alphabetically by title; then assign a lowercase letter (a, b, c) to the year of publication for each source. (See “Chapter in an edited book or work in an anthology” for the corresponding in-text citation.)

Folger, T. (2014a). Beyond the Higgs Boson. . . .

Folger, T. (2014b). Melting away. . . .

5. Work with no author named. Start the entry with the title; alphabetize it by the first important word (ignore A, An, or The).

Go ask Alice. (1971). Avon Books.

6. Agency or corporation as author. List the agency as the author. If the publisher is the same as the author, omit the publisher.

Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. (2013). Feedback for better teaching: Nine principles for using measures of effective teaching.

Books

Most of the information you will need to cite a book appears on the book’s title page and copyright page. (See Figure 23.3.) In printed books, these two pages appear toward the beginning of the text; in e-books, they may appear elsewhere.

CITING A BOOK

✵ Author. Begin with the author’s surname and initial(s): Myers, D. G.

✵ Year. Include the year of publication, in parentheses. Use the most recent copyright year if more than one appears on the copyright page: (2016).

✵ Title. Italicize the title of the book. Capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle (if any) and any proper nouns (Juan) or adjectives (French).

✵ Publisher. Include the full name of the publisher, followed by a period. Set the publisher’s name as it appears on the copyright page. For example, if the publisher’s name is spelled in all caps on the copyright page, include it in all caps in the list of references. Omit only business terms like Ltd. or Inc.

The example reads, “Houlihan, T. A. (2001). Uncivil wars: Political campaigns in a media age. Bedford forward slash Saint Martin’s.” In the above example, “Houlihan, T. A.” is labeled the “author.” “2001” in parenthesis is labeled the year. “Uncivil wars: Political campaigns in a media age” in italics is labeled the title. “Bedford forward slash Saint Martin’s” is labeled the publisher.

Books and Other Long Works

7. Edited book or anthology. List the editor’s or editors’ names, followed by the abbreviation Ed. or Eds. in parentheses and a period.

Bradley, B., Feldman, F., & Johansson, J. (Eds.). (2013). The Oxford handbook of the philosophy of death. Oxford University Press.

8. Chapter in an edited book or work in an anthology. List the author of the work first and then the date the anthology was published. The title of the work follows. Then name the editor of the anthology (not in inverted order), give the title of the anthology (italicized), and insert the inclusive page numbers in parentheses for the work (preceded by pp.). The publication information follows in normal order.

Pettigrew, D. (2018). The suppression of cultural memory and identity in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In J. Lindert & A. T. Marsoobian (Eds.), Multidisciplinary perspectives on genocide and memory (pp. 187—198). Springer.

9. Translated book. After the title, include the initial(s) and last name of the translator followed by a comma and Trans.

Calasso, R. (2019). The unnamable present (R. Dixon, Trans.). Farrar, Straus and Giroux. (Original work published 2017)

10. Edition other than the first

Dessler, A. E., & Parson, E. A. (2019). The science and politics of global climate change: A guide to the debate (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

11. Article from an encyclopedia or dictionary

Brue, A. W., & Wilmshurst, L. (2018). Adaptive behavior assessments. In B. B. Frey (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of educational research, measurement, and evaluation (pp. 40—44). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781506326139.n21

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Adscititious. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved September 5, 2019, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/adscititious

12. Multivolume work. Give the volume numbers in parentheses after the title. If all volumes were not published in the same year, the publication date should include the range of years.

Zeigler-Hill, V., & Shackelford, T. K. (Eds.). (2018). The SAGE handbook of personality and individual differences (Vols. I—III). SAGE Publications.

13. One volume in a multivolume work. Include the publication date for the individual volume following the editor’s name. The number and title of the volume follow the title of the multivolume work.

Zeigler-Hill, V., & Shackelford, T. K. (Eds.). (2018). The SAGE handbook of personality and individual differences: Vol. II. Origins of personality and individual differences. SAGE Publications.

14. Government publication. If no author is given, list the most specific agency as the author and the broader organization as the publisher. Include any document or publication number if available.

National Park Service. (2019, April 11). Travel where women made history: Ordinary and extraordinary places of American women. U.S. Department of the Interior. https://www.nps.gov/subjects/travelwomenshistory/index.htm

Berchick, E. R., Barnett, J. C., & Upton, R. D. (2019, September 10). Health insurance coverage in the United States: 2018 (Report No. P60-267). U.S. Census Bureau. https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2019/demo/p60-267.html

Articles in Periodicals

A periodical is a publication that appears at regular intervals: Newspapers generally appear daily, magazines weekly or monthly, and scholarly journals quarterly. In periodicals, the information you will need to cite may appear on the first page of the article (see Figure 23.4), or you may need to look at a combination of places (the first page of the article, the cover of the periodical, the database you used, the Web page or Web site on which the article appears, and so on).

CITING AN ARTICLE IN A PERIODICAL

✵ Author. Follow the basic format for listing authors’ names. If no author is listed, begin with the article title and alphabetize the entry by its title (ignoring the words A, An, or The).

✵ Date. For articles in journals, the year of publication appears in parentheses following the author’s name. For articles in newspapers and magazines, the month and day, if relevant, follow the year.

✵ Article title. Do not enclose article titles in quotation marks. Capitalize only the first word of the article title, along with any proper nouns or proper adjectives (American) and the first word following a colon.

✵ Periodical title. Italicize the name of the periodical. Use standard capitalization.

✵ Volume/issue number. For scholarly journals and magazines, give the volume number in italics; include the issue number in parentheses, not in italics, for all periodicals that offer them.

✵ Pages. Include the page numbers, but do not use p. or pp.

✵ DOI/URL. If a DOI (digital object identifier) is available, include it at the end of the citation with no period at the end. If there is no DOI but you can supply a direct-link URL, do so; if not, omit the URL. Include DOIs as links, using the format “https://doi.org/” and adding the DOI number for the specific work. Include a retrieval statement (“retrieved [month, day, year] from”) before URLs only when the online source is designed to be regularly updated. If a DOI or URL is lengthy, you can include a shortened form by using a site like shortdoi.org or bitly.com. If your word processor inserts line breaks automatically or moves a DOI or URL to its own line, you can accept that formatting.

The example reads, “Kar, R. B. (2017). The evolutionary game-theoretic foundations of law. Law ampersand Social Inquiry, 42(1), 38—48. h t t p s colon forward slash forward slash d o i dot o r g forward slash 10 dot 1111 forward slash l s i dot 12277.” In the above example, “Kar, R. B.” is labeled the author. "2017” in parenthesis is labeled the year. “The evolutionary game-theoretic foundations of law” is labeled the article title. “Law ampersand Social Inquiry” is labeled the periodical title. In “42(1),” 42 is labeled volume and 1 in parenthesis is labeled number. “38 to 48” is labeled pages. “h t t p s colon forward slash forward slash d o i dot o r g forward slash 10 dot 1111 forward slash l s i dot 12277” is labeled as D O I.

15. Article in a scholarly journal. Provide issue numbers for all journals that offer them. If the journal article has been assigned a DOI (digital object identifier), include it. If there is no DOI, you can provide a direct-link URL, but do not include URLs that lead to databases readers can’t access.

Ganegoda, D. B., & Bordia, P. (2019). I can be happy for you, but not all the time: A contingency model of envy and positive empathy in the workplace. Journal of Applied Psychology, 104(6), 776—795. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000377

16. Article in a magazine. Include the day, month, and year or month and year of the publication as applicable. If you accessed the magazine online, provide the DOI or a direct-link URL.

PRINT

Koch, C. (2019, October). Is death reversible? Scientific American, 321(4), 34—37.

ONLINE

Talbot, M. (2020, May 18). The rogue experimenters. The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/05/25/the-rogue-experimenters

17. Article in a newspaper. Include the year, month, and day in parentheses following the author’s name. If you accessed the article from a database, omit the URL; if you accessed it through a Web site, include it.

PRINT

Finucane, M. (2019, September 25). Americans still eating too many low-quality carbs. The Boston Globe, B2.

ONLINE

Daly, J. (2019, August 2). Duquesne’s med school plan part of national trend to train more doctors. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. https://www.post-gazette.com/news/health/2019/08/02/Duquesne-med-school-national-trend-doctors-osteopathic- medicine-pittsburgh/stories/201908010181

o If the direct-link URL is lengthy, you can include a shortened form.

Daly, J. (2019, August 2). Duquesne’s med school plan part of national trend to train more doctors. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. https://bit.ly/2Vzrm2l

18. Editorial or letter to the editor. Cite the editorial or letter beginning with the author’s name (if available). If the author’s name is not available, begin with the title. Include Editorial or Letter to the editor in brackets following the title (if any).

Gavin Newsom wants to stop rent gouging. Will lawmakers finally stand up for tenants? [Editorial]. (2019, September 4). Los Angeles Times. https://lat.ms/2lBlRm1

Doran, K. (2019, October 11). When the homeless look like grandma or grandpa [Letter to the editor]. The New York Times. https://nyti.ms/33foD0K

19. Book or film review. List the reviewer’s name, the date, and the title of the review (if any). In brackets, give a description of the work reviewed, including the medium (book or motion picture), title, and the author for a book or the director for a film.

Hall, W. (2019). [Review of the book How to change your mind: The new science of psychedelics, by M. Pollan]. Addiction, 114(10), 1892—1893. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14702

Other Sources

20. Document posted on a Web site. Many documents published on Web sites fall into other categories and can be cited using models in other sections. For articles in an online newspaper, for example, follow item 17, “Article in a newspaper,” and for an entry in an online dictionary, follow item 11, “Article from an encyclopedia or dictionary.” Use one of the models below only when your source does not fit in any other category. In these items, the Web site name follows the title unless the author and Web site name are the same. If you access the source online, include a direct-link URL. When no publication date is available, use “n.d.” (“no date”). Include a retrieval statement (“retrieved [month, day, year] from”) before URLs only when the online source is designed to be regularly updated.

Albright, A. (2019, July 25). The global education challenge: Scaling up to tackle the learning crisis. The Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Brookings_Blum_2019_education.pdf

National Institute of Mental Health. (2016, March). Seasonal affective disorder. National Institutes of Health. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/seasonal-affective-disorder/index.shtml

BBC News. (2019, October 31). Goats help save Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. https://bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-50248549

21. Film, video, or DVD

Peele, J. (Director). (2017). Get out [Film]. Universal Pictures.

22. Television program

Waller-Bridge, P. (Writer), & Bradbeer, H. (Director). (2019, March 18). The provocative request (Season 2, Episode 3) [TV series episode]. In P. Waller-Bridge, H. Williams, & J. Williams (Executive Producers), Fleabag. Two Brothers Pictures; BBC.

23. Mobile application software (app)

Google LLC. (2019). Google earth (Version 9.3.3) [Mobile app]. App Store. https://apps.apple.com/us/app/google-earth/id293622097

RESEARCH PROJECT IN PROGRESS 11

For the final paper you prepared in Research Project in Progress 10, prepare a list of references in APA style.

STUDENTS WRITE

The following research project was written by Sonia Gomez for her introductory psychology course. She used APA style for formatting her paper and documenting her sources. Notice her use of in-text citations and paraphrases and summaries of sources to provide evidence in support of her thesis.

"The heading consists of the title “SCHIZOPHRENIA: DEFINITION AND TREATMENT” centered and page number “1” at top right as a header. The annotation for the following text reads ""Identification, double-space and include on title page: title of the paper (centered bold), writer's name, department and school, course number and name, instructor's name and assignment due date."" The relevant text reads, ""Sonia Gomez Department of Psychology, Santa Teresa College Psychology 101 : Introduction to Psychology Professor McCombs January 22, 2020"" The corresponding annotation reads, ""Information on title page should be centered; begin 3—4 double spaces from top margin (not shown here)."" Text on Page 2 reads as follows. ""Abstract Schizophrenia is a mental or brain disorder that affects about 1 percent of the population. The five types of schizophrenia include paranoid, disorganized, catatonic, undifferentiated, and residual."" The corresponding annotation reads, ""Abstract: Include an abstract (or brief summary) only if requested by instructor; heading centered, bold."" The paragraph continues ""There are three categories of symptoms — positive, disorganized or cognitive, and negative. The causes of schizophrenia are not well known, but there is likely a genetic component and an environmental component. The structure of the brain of schizophrenics is also unusual. Treatments include drug therapy with typical and atypical anti-psychotics and psychosocial and cognitive-behavioral therapies."" The corresponding annotation reads, ""Formatting: Double-space essay; leave one-inch margins on all sides."""

"The text reads, “Schizophrenia: Definition and Treatment"" The corresponding annotation reads,"" Title: Repeat full title just before text of paper begins; title centered, bold."" ""The disorder schizophrenia comes with an ugly cultural stigma. There is a common belief that all schizophrenics are violent. In fact, they are more a danger to themselves than to others because they often commit suicide."" The corresponding annotation reads, ""Introduction: Presentation of the topic researched by Gomez."" ""Many of the movies, books, and T V shows in our culture do not help to diminish this stigma. The movie A Beautiful Mind, for example, features a paranoid schizophrenic who comes close to harming his family and others around him because of his hallucinations and delusions. He believes that the government is out to get him (Grazer and Howard, 2001). Many people are afraid of schizophrenics and believe their permanent home should be in a mental hospital or psychiatric ward. This paper helps to dispel misperceptions of the disorder by providing facts about and treatments of the disorder."" (Grazer and Howard, 2001) is highlighted in the above paragraph. The corresponding annotation reads, ""Sources: Authors named in parenthetical citation; ampersand (&), not the word and, between names."" ""What Is Schizophrenia?"" The corresponding annotation reads, ""Heading: First-level heading centered, bold."" ""Schizophrenia is a mental or brain disorder that affects about 1 percent of the population or 2.2 million Americans (National Institutes of Mental Health, 2016)."" The corresponding annotation reads, ""Sources: No individual author named, so Web site sponsor listed as author."" The paragraph continues ""This disease can be very disruptive in people’s lives. It causes problems with communication and maintaining jobs. It is a widely misunderstood disease; many people believe schizophrenics to be dangerous. There is no cure for schizophrenia, but it can often be successfully treated (National Institutes of Mental Health, 2016). Schizophrenia does not seem to favor a specific gender or ethnic group. The disease rarely occurs in children. Hallucinations and delusions usually begin between ages sixteen and thirty (National Alliance on Mental Illness, 2017)."" In the above paragraph, “National Institutes of Mental Health, 2016,” and “National Alliance on Mental Illness, 2017” are highlighted. ""Types of Schizophrenia"" The corresponding annotation reads, ""Heading: Second-level heading at left margin, bold."" The text continues ""There are five types of schizophrenia—paranoid, disorganized, catatonic, undifferentiated, and residual. People with paranoid schizophrenia are illogically paranoid about the world around them. They often hold false beliefs about being persecuted. People with disorganized schizophrenia are confused and incoherent and jumble their speech. People with disorganized schizophrenia often show symptoms of schizophasia—creating their own words and using them in a word salad, a jumbling of coherent and noncoherent words."""

"The text reads, ""People with catatonic schizophrenia are usually immobile and unresponsive to everything around them. Undifferentiated schizophrenia is diagnosed when the patient does not fit into the other three categories. Residual schizophrenia occurs when schizophrenic symptoms have decreased but still exist (Web M D, 2017). Symptoms of Schizophrenia The symptoms of schizophrenia are separated into three categories—positive, disorganized or cognitive, and negative. Positive symptoms include hallucinations and delusions (Web M D, 2017). According to Barch (2003), disorganized or cognitive symptoms cause the person to be unable to think clearly."" The corresponding annotation reads, ""Sources: Author named in text; date follows in parentheses."" In the above paragraph, “Barch” is highlighted. Paragraph continues with ""Disorganized or cognitive symptoms include difficulty communicating, use of nonsense words, inability to focus on one thought, slow movement, inability to make decisions, forgetfulness and losing of things, repetitive movements, inability to make sense of everyday senses, and problems with memory. Negative symptoms are an absence of normal behavior (Web M D, 2017). They include a lack of emotion or inappropriate emotions, isolation, lack of energy and motivation, loss of interest or pleasure in life, problems functioning in everyday life (such as bad hygiene), rapid mood changes, and catatonia (remaining in the same position for a long time) (Web M D, 2017). The diagnosis of schizophrenia is often difficult because it can be confused with a number of other mental disorders including bipolar disorder. The process of diagnosis begins with an interview by a psychiatrist. The patient is usually tested for other physical illnesses using various blood tests. If the symptoms last for at least six months and there is seemingly no other cause of the problem, the person is considered to have schizophrenia (National Alliance on Mental Illness, 2017). Causes of Schizophrenia No one is completely sure of the causes of schizophrenia. Most scientists believe that genetics are involved, and it seems that there is either a genetic mutation in D N A or a gene that can be activated by a number of situations. Scientists are close to determining the exact chromosome where the gene"" paragraph continued on next page."

"The text reads, ""for schizophrenia might be located (Conklin and Iacono, 2002 ). The circumstances surrounding birth may have a great effect on whether the child’s schizophrenic gene becomes activated or not. For example, if a fetus is exposed to viruses or malnourished before birth or if there are complications during birth, the gene may be activated. Conklin and Iacono (2002) reported a link between schizophrenia and complications during birth that result in lack of oxygen (hypoxia). Also, Bower (2008) observed that poor children or children who deal with highly stressful situations may be more likely to develop the disorder."" The corresponding annotation reads, ""Sources: Authors named in text, so and, not ampersand (&), used between names."" In the above paragraph, “Conklin and Iacono” is highlighted. A new paragraph reads, ""Besides all of these factors, the brains of people with schizophrenia seem to be different from other people’s. People with schizophrenia have an imbalance of dopamine and glutamate in their brains. The ventricles at the center of the brain seem to be larger, and there appears to be a loss of brain tissue. ( Figure 1 )."" The corresponding annotation reads, “Illustration: The figure is referred to in the text; the word Figure and a figure number and title appear above the figure.” “(Figure 1)” is highlighted. The micrograph labeled “Figure 1. Brain-tissue loss” lies below. A footnote reads, “Note: Thompson et al. (2001). Mapping adolescent brain change reveals dynamic wave of accelerated gray matter loss in very early-onset schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98 (20): 11650 hyphen11655. Copyright © (2001) National Academy of Science, U S A.”"

"A new paragraph reads, ""Also, some areas of the brain seem to have more or less activity than normal brains do. Conklin and Iacono (2002) have shown that these abnormalities in the brain appear to be preexisting rather than caused by the disease. Schizophrenia tends to appear during puberty because of hormonal interactions occurring in the brain (Web M D, 2017). Treatment There is a wide variety of treatments for schizophrenia. Typical antipsychotic drugs, such as chlorpromazine and perphenazine, are an obvious choice, especially for people with hallucinations and delusions. They can help to clear up thinking problems. However, many of these drugs cause unpleasant side effects such as nausea and anxiety. Because of this, schizophrenics may stop taking or refuse to take their medication. Many of these antipsychotic drugs have not changed since the 1950s. In the 1990s, a new set of drugs—atypical antipsychotics—was developed. Clozapine was one of these drugs, and it was deemed very effective. However, it can cause agranulocytosis, a loss of white blood cells. Between the constant testing for agranulocytosis and the cost of clozapine, many with schizophrenia disliked the drug (National Institutes of Mental Health, 2017). Other treatments do not rely on medication. Psychosocial and cognitive behavioral therapies are often used. People with schizophrenia can learn illness-management skills. They can go to rehabilitation, and their families can be educated about how to care for them. Self-help groups are also common. However, if the disease becomes unmanageable, the person with schizophrenia may end up in the hospital. Electroconvulsive therapy, in which seizures are induced, is one of the more extreme treatments for schizophrenia. It is often used to treat catatonia. If the schizophrenia is still unmanageable, a lobotomy may be performed. A lobotomy is surgery in which the connections to and from the prefrontal cortex are cut. Lobotomies cause severe personality changes; they were used much more often in the 1950s than they are today (National Alliance on Mental Illness, 2017). People with schizophrenia are very susceptible to substance abuse. Many schizophrenics have severe drinking problems, and tobacco addiction is also"" continued on next page."

"The text continues, ""common. It is harder for them than most people to break this addiction. If they combine substance abuse treatment with the other treatments for their disease, they get much more beneficial results (Web M D, 2017). Conclusion The corresponding annotation reads, ""Conclusion: Conclusion is indicated by heading (bold and centered). Gomez references her introduction in her conclusion."" The text reads ""As scientists begin to understand schizophrenia, better treatments are becoming available. There is starting to be a better outlook for those with schizophrenia, and because of this, the public might develop a more sympathetic view of those with the disorder."" new page follows. ""References"" The corresponding annotation reads, ""References: Heading centered, bold; list appears on a new page."" Barch, D. (2003). Cognition in schizophrenia: Does working memory work? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(4), 146 to 150. H t t p s colon forward slash forward slash d o i dot o r g forward slash 10.1111 forward slash 1467 hyphen 8721.01251 “h t t p s colon forward slash forward slash d o i dot org forward slash 10.1111 forward slash 1467-8721.01251” is highlighted. Bower, B. (2008). Rare mutations tied to schizophrenia. Science News, 173(14), 222. The corresponding annotation reads, “D O I: The D O I is provided when available for printed and online works.” Conklin, H., and Iacono, W. (2002). Schizophrenia: A neurodevelopmental perspective. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(1), 33 to 37. The corresponding annotation reads, “Formatting: Double-spaced throughout.” ""Grazer, B. (Producer), and Howard, R. (Director). (2001). A beautiful mind [Motion Picture]. Los Angeles, C A: Universal Pictures."" The corresponding annotation reads,"" Entries: Alphabetize entries by first important word (author’s last name or first key word of title if no author named). Only the first word and proper nouns or adjectives are capitalized in titles of shorter works (such as articles in a periodical, or Web pages on a Web site). First, last, and all key words are capitalized in titles of longer, stand-alone works (such as books, periodicals, films, Web sites).” The references continue ""Internet Mental Health Initiative. (2001, September 24). U C L A maps how schizophrenia engulfs teen brains. Retrieved from h t t p colon forward slash forward slash news room dot u c l a dot edu forward slash releases forward slash U C L A-Researchers hyphen Map hyphen How hyphen Schizophrenia hyphen 2701 National Alliance on Mental Illness. (2017). Schizophrenia. In Mental health conditions. Retrieved from h t t p s colon forward slash forward slash w w w dot nami dot org forward slash Learn hyphen More forward slash Mental hyphen Health hyphen Conditions forward slash Schizophrenia National Institutes of Mental Health. (2016, February). Schizophrenia. In Health topics. Retrieved from h t t p colon forward slash forward slash w w w dot n i m h dot n i h dot gov forward slash health forward slash topics forward slash schizophrenia forward slash index dot s h t m l Web M D. (2017). Schizophrenia guide. In Mental health center. Retrieved from h t t p colon forward slash forward slash w w w dot web m d dot com forward slash schizophrenia forward slash guide forward slash default dot h t m"" The corresponding annotation reads, ""U R Ls: The direct-link U R L is provided for Web sites and Web pages."" “h t t p colon forward slash forward slash w w w dot web m d dot com forward slash schizophrenia forward slash guide forward slash default dot h t m” is highlighted."