Successful college writing, Eighth edition - Kathleen T. McWhorter 2020

Handbook: writing problems and how to correct them
Academic and business applications

HANDBOOK CONTENTS

✵ REVIEW BASIC GRAMMAR

o 1 Parts of Speech

o 2 Sentence Structure

✵ WRITE GRAMMATICALLY CORRECT SENTENCES

o 3 Sentence Fragments

o 4 Run-on Sentences and Comma Splices

o 5 Subject-Verb Agreement

o 6 Verb Forms

o 7 Pronoun Problems

o 8 Shifts and Mixed Constructions

o 9 Adjectives and Adverbs

o 10 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

✵ USE PUNCTUATION CORRECTLY

o 11 End Punctuation

o 12 Commas

o 13 Semicolons and Colons

o 14 Quotation Marks, Ellipses, and Brackets

o 15 Apostrophes

o 16 Parentheses and Dashes

✵ MANAGE MECHANICS AND SPELLING

o 17 Capitalization

o 18 Numbers

o 19 Italics

o 20 Hyphens

o 21 Spelling

✵ Answers to Even-Numbered Exercises in the Handbook

Review Basic Grammar

1 Parts of Speech

Each word in a sentence acts as one of eight parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections. These building blocks of our language are summarized in Table H1.1. Often, to revise your writing or to correct sentence errors, you need to understand how a word or phrase functions in a particular sentence.

2 Sentence Structure

2a Sentence Parts

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought about something or someone. Every sentence must contain two basic parts: a subject and a predicate.

Subjects

The subject of a sentence names a person, place, or thing and tells whom or what the sentence is about. It identifies the performer or receiver of the action expressed in the predicate.

✵ Lady Gaga, the flamboyant performer, has made savvy decisions about her career.

✵ The clock on the mantel was given to the children by their grandmother.

The noun or pronoun that names what the sentence is about is called the simple subject.

✵ Mozart began composing at the age of four.

✵ The postal worker was bitten by a dog.

The simple subject of an imperative sentence is understood as you, but you is not stated directly.

✵ Be quiet.

o The sentence is understood as [You] be quiet.

The complete subject is the simple subject plus its modifiers — words that describe, identify, qualify, or limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun.

Example 1: A series of very bad decisions doomed the project.

In the above sentence, “A series of very bad decisions” is the complete subject.

Example 2: There are too many books to fit on the shelves.

In the above sentence, “too many books to fit on the shelves” is the complete subject.

A sentence with a compound subject contains two or more simple subjects joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, so, or yet).

✵ Joel and Ethan Coen produce and direct their films.

✵ A doctor or a physician’s assistant will explain the results.

Predicates

The predicate of a sentence indicates what the subject does, what happens to the subject, or what is said about the subject. The predicate, then, can indicate an action or a state of being.

The simple predicate is the main verb along with its helping verbs.

A helping verb (also called an auxiliary verb) combines with a main verb to indicate tense, mood, or voice or to add further information.

✵ Reporters should call the subjects of their stories for comment.

✵ A snow bicycle for Antarctic workers has been developed.

The complete predicate consists of the simple predicate plus its modifiers and any objects or complements.

A complement is a word or group of words that describes or renames a subject or an object.

Example 1: The growth of Los Angeles depended to a large extent on finding a way to get water to the desert.

In the above sentence, “depended to a large extent on finding a way to get water to the desert” is the complete predicate.

Example 2: Watching fishing boats is a relaxing and pleasant way to spend an afternoon.

In the above sentence, “is a relaxing and pleasant way to spend an afternoon"" is the complete predicate.”

A compound predicate contains two or more predicates that have the same subject and that are joined by and, but, or, nor, or another conjunction.

✵ AIDS drugs can save many lives but are seldom available in poor countries that need them desperately.

✵ President Johnson neither wanted to run for a second term nor planned to serve if elected.

Objects

A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb. A direct object answers the question, What? or Whom?

✵ The Scottish fiddler played a lively reel.

o The noun reel answers the question, What did he play?

✵ The crowd in the stadium jeered the quarterback.

o The noun quarterback answers the question, Whom did they jeer?

An indirect object is a noun or pronoun that names the person or thing to whom or for whom something is done.

✵ Habitat for Humanity gave them an award for their work.

✵ A child on a bench tossed the ducklings some crumbs.

Complements

A complement is a word or group of words that describes a subject or object and completes the meaning of the sentence. There are two kinds of complements: subject complements and object complements.

A linking verb (such as be, become, feel, seem, or taste) connects the subject of a sentence to a subject complement, a noun, a noun phrase, or an adjective that renames or describes the subject.

✵ Aretha Franklin was a much-loved performer.

✵ She was too sick to finish her tour.

An object complement is a noun, a noun phrase, or an adjective that modifies or renames the direct object. Object complements appear with transitive verbs (such as name, find, make, think, elect, appoint, choose, and consider), which express action directed toward something or someone.

A direct object receives the action of the verb: He drove me home.

✵ The council appointed Nik as its new vice president.

✵ The undercooked meat made several children sick.

2b Phrases

A phrase is a group of related words that lacks a subject, a predicate, or both. A phrase cannot stand alone as a sentence. There are four common types of phrases: prepositional phrases, verbal phrases, appositive phrases, and absolute phrases. Phrases can appear at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence and can help make your writing more detailed and interesting.

Prepositional phrases

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition (such as in, above, with, at, behind), the object of the preposition (a noun or pronoun), and any modifiers of the object. Prepositional phrases usually function as adjectives or adverbs to tell more about people, places, objects, or actions. They can also function as nouns. A prepositional phrase generally adds information about time, place, direction, or manner.

Each of the following sentences has been edited to include a prepositional phrase or phrases that expand the meaning of the sentence by adding detail:

Example 1:

Original sentence: He fell.

Revised sentence: He fell on the icy sidewalk.

Example 2:

Original sentence: The ship suddenly appeared.

Revised sentence: The ship suddenly appeared through the mist near the shore.

Verbal phrases

A verbal is a verb form used as a noun (the barking of the dog), an adjective (a barking dog), or an adverb (continued to bark). It cannot be used alone as the verb of a sentence, however. The three kinds of verbals are participles, gerunds, and infinitives. A verbal phrase consists of a verbal and its modifiers.

Participles and participial phrases

All verbs have two participles: present and past. The present participle is the -ing form of a verb (being, hoping, studying). The past participle of most verbs ends in -d or -ed (hoped, consisted). The past participle of irregular verbs has no set pattern (been, ridden). Both the present participle and the past participle can function as adjectives modifying nouns and pronouns.

Example 1: The planes flew over the foggy airport in a holding pattern.

In the above sentence, “holding” is the present participle form of the verb, modifying the noun “pattern.”

Example 2: The pot was made of molded clay.

In the above sentence, “molded” is the past participle form of the verb, modifying the noun “clay.”

A participial phrase, which consists of a participle and its modifiers, can also function as an adjective in a sentence.

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Gerunds and gerund phrases

A gerund is the present participle, or -ing form, of a verb that functions as a noun in a sentence.

✵ Driving can be a frustrating activity.

✵ The government has not done enough to build housing.

A gerund phrase consists of a gerund and its modifiers. Like a gerund, a gerund phrase is used as a noun and can therefore function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, an object of a preposition, or a subject complement.

Infinitives and infinitive phrases

An infinitive is the base form of a verb preceded by to: to study, to sleep. An infinitive phrase consists of the infinitive plus any modifiers or objects. An infinitive phrase can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

Sometimes the to in an infinitive phrase is understood but not written.

✵ Her demonstration helped me learn the software.

Note: Be sure to distinguish between infinitive phrases and prepositional phrases beginning with the preposition to. In an infinitive phrase, to is followed by a verb (to paint); in a prepositional phrase, to is followed by a noun or pronoun (to a movie).

Appositive phrases

An appositive is a word that explains, restates, or adds new information about a noun. An appositive phrase consists of an appositive and its modifiers.

✵ Ben Affleck, a famous actor, is active in trying to improve conditions in the Congo.

o The appositive phrase adds information about the noun Ben Affleck.

Absolute phrases

An absolute phrase consists of a noun or pronoun and any modifiers, usually followed by a participle. An absolute phrase modifies an entire sentence, not any particular word or words within the sentence. It can appear anywhere in a sentence and is set off from the rest of the sentence with commas.

✵ Their shift completed, the night workers walked out at sunrise.

✵ An unsuspecting insect clamped in its mandible, the praying mantis, its legs folded piously, appears serenely uninvolved.

2c Clauses

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause is either independent (also called main) or dependent (also called subordinate). An independent clause can stand alone as a grammatically complete sentence.

✵ Einstein was a clerk at the Swiss Patent Office.

✵ Ethnic disputes followed the disintegration of Yugoslavia.

A dependent clause has a subject and a predicate, but it cannot stand alone as a grammatically complete sentence because it does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause usually begins with either a subordinating conjunction (such as although, because, before, if, or whether; see Table 9.3, p. 207) or a relative pronoun (see Table H2.1) that connects it to an independent clause. Subordinating conjunctions connect less important ideas (expressed in a dependent clause) to more important ideas (expressed in an independent clause). Relative pronouns introduce dependent clauses that function as adjectives and refer back to a noun or pronoun that the clause modifies.

The following examples show subordinating conjunctions and relative pronouns and their use in dependent clauses:

Example 1: When the puppies were born, the breeder examined them carefully.

In the above sentence, “When the puppies were born” is the dependent clause beginning with a subordinating conjunction.

Example 2: Van Gogh’s paintings began to command high prices after he died.

In the above sentence, “after he died” is the dependent clause beginning with a subordinating conjunction.

Example 3: Isadora Duncan, who personified modern dance, died in a bizarre accident.

In the above sentence, “who personified modern dance” is the dependent clause beginning with a relative pronoun.

2d Types of Sentences

For coverage of sentence types, see Chapter 9, pp. 204—8.

Write Grammatically Correct Sentences

3 Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is a group of words that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.

A sentence is a group of words that must include at least one independent clause (a subject and a verb that express a complete thought).

3a Recognize fragments

A fragment is often missing a subject, a complete verb, or both.

A group of words can have both a subject and a verb but still be a fragment because it does not express a complete thought.

Notice that the preceding fragment begins with the subordinating conjunction because. A clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. Word groups that begin with a relative pronoun (that, which, who) are also not complete sentences.

For a list of common subordinating conjunctions, see Table 9.3 (p. 207). For a list of relative pronouns, see Table H2.1.

Finally, when a word group begins with a transitional word or phrase (for example, also), make sure that it includes both a subject and a verb.

Use Figure H3.1, “How to Identify a Fragment,” to help you decide whether a particular word group is a complete sentence or a sentence fragment. Then use Figure H3.2 for how to correct any fragments you identify.

FIGURE H3.1 How to Identify a Fragment

The flowchart reads as follows.

Question 1: Does the word group have a subject? (Note that the subject may be understood as you. Example: [You] Close the door.)

If yes, proceed to Question 2.

If no, use this revision strategy:

✵ It is a fragment. Revise.

Question 2: Does the word group have a complete verb? (Note that verbals are not complete verbs.)

If yes, proceed to Question 3.

If no, use this revision strategy:

✵ It is a fragment. Revise.

Question 3: Does the word group express a complete idea? If it begins with a subordinating word (although, since, if), a relative pronoun (that, which, who), or a transitional word or phrase (for example, likewise, also), does the word group contain an independent clause?

If yes, proceed to Question 4.

If no, use this revision strategy:

✵ It is a fragment. Revise.

Question 4: It is a sentence.

3b Correct fragments

A sentence fragment can be revised in two general ways:

1. Joining it to a nearby sentence

2. Adding the parts that are missing

The method you choose depends on the element the fragment lacks as well as your intended meaning.

Example 1:

Original sentence: Are hatched in sand.

Revised sentence: Certain turtle eggs are hatched in sand.

Example 2:

Original sentence: Jamal is a basketball player of many talents. Especially his rebounding ability.

Revised sentence: Jamal is a basketball player of many talents, especially his rebounding ability.

Example 3:

Original sentence: To notice a friendly smile.

Revised sentence: Sam was too busy to notice a friendly smile.

Example 4:

Original sentence: Because the number of voters has declined.

Revised sentence: The number of voters has declined.

3c Recognize intentional fragments

Professional writers sometimes use sentence fragments intentionally to achieve special effects, particularly in works of fiction or articles written for popular magazines. An intentional fragment may be used to emphasize a point, answer a question, recreate a conversation, or make an exclamation. However, you should avoid using intentional fragments in academic writing. Instructors and other readers may find the fragments distracting or too informal, or they may assume you used a fragment in error.

EXERCISE 3.1

Correct any fragments in the following sentences. Some groups of sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: More people are going to college every year. Especially young women. In the above sentence, the end period after the word, year is crossed out and replaced with comma. The uppercase “E” in the word “especially” is replaced with lowercase “e.”

Revised sentence: More people are going to college every year, especially young women.

1. The number of students in college. Increased greatly in the years after World War II.

2. Because federal funding from the 1944 GI Bill made it possible. Millions of returning veterans attended colleges.

3. Many people credit this program with helping to create a strong middle class. In the United States during the 1950s and 1960s.

4. Now, about two-thirds of high school graduates will attend college. Because, on average, those with bachelor’s degrees earn over $20,000 more a year than people with only high school diplomas do.

5. However, as education costs continue to rise. Some wonder whether a traditional four-year college is always worth the expense.

EXERCISE 3.2

Rewrite the following passage as needed to eliminate sentence fragments.

Original sentence: How much and what kind of intervention should be undertaken. On behalf of endangered species?

Revised sentence: How much and what kind of intervention should be undertaken on behalf of endangered species?

Gila trout are endangered in some stretches of water. That are managed as designated wilderness. A hands-off policy would be their doom. Because exotic trout species now swim in the same streams. Gila trout can survive the competition and the temptation to interbreed only if they swim in isolated tributaries. In which a waterfall blocks the upstream movement of other fish. Two decades ago, one such tributary was fortified. With a small concrete dam. In other words, a dam deliberately built in the wilderness. It is often difficult to choose the right way. To manage a wilderness area. A scientific grasp of the way the ecosystem works is essential. Yet not always available.

4 Run-on Sentences and Comma Splices

A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses are joined without a punctuation mark or a coordinating conjunction. Run-on sentences are also known as fused sentences.

A comma splice occurs when two or more independent clauses are joined with a comma but without a coordinating conjunction (such as and, or, or but).

The sentence reads, “A typical magic act includes tricks and illusions, both depend on deception.” In the above sentence, “A typical magic act includes tricks and illusions” and “both depend on deception” are independent clauses. The text below reads, notice that only a comma separates the two independent clauses, causing the comma splice.

Another type of comma splice occurs when a word other than a coordinating conjunction is used with a comma to join two or more independent clauses.

The sentence reads, “A typical magic act includes tricks and illusions, however, both depend on deception.” In the above sentence, “A typical magic act includes tricks and illusions” and “both depend on deception” are independent clauses.

In the preceding sentence, however is a conjunctive adverb, not a coordinating conjunction. There are only seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet.

4a Recognize run-on sentences and comma splices

Many students have difficulty spotting run-on sentences and comma splices in their own writing. Use the flowchart in Figure H4.1 to help you identify these types of errors in your sentences.

FIGURE H4.1 How to Identify a Run-on Sentence or Comma Splice

The flowchart reads as follows. Question 1: Does the sentence have two or more independent clauses?

If yes, proceed to Question 2.

If no, use this revision strategy:

✵ It is not a run-on or a comma splice.

Question 2: Are the clauses joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, for, so, or yet)?

If no, proceed to Question 3.

If yes, use this revision strategy:

✵ The sentence is not a run-on or a comma splice.

Question 3: Are the clauses joined by a semicolon (;)?

If no, proceed to Question 4.

If yes, use this revision strategy:

✵ The sentence is not a run-on or a comma splice.

Question 4: Are the clauses connected with only a comma?

If no, proceed to Question 5.

If yes, use this revision strategy:

✵ The sentence is a comma splice. Revise.

Question 5: Does the sentence lack both a comma and a coordinating conjunction?

If yes, use this revision strategy:

✵ It is a run-on sentence. Revise.

4b Correct run-on sentences and comma splices

There are five basic ways to correct a run-on sentence or comma splice (Table H4.1). Choose the method that best fits your sentence or intended meaning.

EXERCISE 4.1

Correct any run-ons or comma splices in the following sentences.

Original sentence: A deadly nerve poison is found on the skin of some Amazon tree frogs, native tribes use the poison on the tips of their arrows when they hunt. In the above sentence, the comma after the word, frogs is crossed out and replaced with a semicolon.

Revised sentence: A deadly nerve poison is found on the skin of some Amazon tree frogs; native tribes use the poison on the tips of their arrows when they hunt.

1. Nearly every American child dreams of going to Disney World, it has become one of the most popular family vacation destinations.

2. Openness is one way to build trust in a relationship another is to demonstrate tolerance and patience.

3. In the 1960s some Americans treated Vietnam veterans disrespectfully this situation has changed dramatically since that time.

4. With large bodies and tiny wings, bumblebees have long been a puzzle, how do they fly?

5. Restoring a painting is, indeed, delicate work too much enthusiasm can be dangerous.

EXERCISE 4.2

Correct any run-on sentences and comma splices in the following paragraph. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: Some people believe dreams are revealing, others think the brain is simply unloading excess information.

Revised sentence: Some people believe dreams are revealing, but others think the brain is simply unloading excess information.

Throughout recorded history, people have been fascinated by dreams, they have wondered what meaning dreams hold. Whether the dreams are ominous or beautiful, people have always wanted to understand them. There are many ancient stories about dream interpretation one of these is the biblical story of Daniel. Daniel is able to interpret a ruler’s dream, this power to interpret convinces the ruler that Daniel is a prophet. Other early writers considered the topic of dream interpretation, to Latin writers, some dreams were meaningful and some were not. Meaningful dreams could reveal the future, these writers argued, but other dreams were simply the result of eating or drinking too much. Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, dramatically changed the field of dream interpretation he believed that dreams come from the subconscious. According to Freud, ideas too frightening for the waking mind often appear in dreams, patients in Freudian therapy often discuss dream images. Today, not everyone agrees with Freud, scientists trying to understand the brain still pay attention to dreams. They are certain that dreams reflect modern life more and more people today dream about computers.

5 Subject-Verb Agreement

Subjects and verbs must agree in person and number. Person refers to the forms I or we (first person), you (second person), and he, she, it, and they (third person). Number shows whether a word refers to one thing (singular) or more than one thing (plural). In a sentence, subjects and verbs need to be consistent in person and number: I drive, you drive, she drives, they drive.

Subject-verb agreement errors often occur in complicated sentences, in sentences with compound subjects, or in sentences where the subject and verb are separated by other words or phrases. The following sections will help you look for and revise common errors in subject-verb agreement.

5a Make sure the verb agrees with the subject, not with words that come between the subject and verb

The sentence reads, “The number of farm workers has remained constant over several decades.” In the above sentence, the verb “has” agrees with the subject “number” and not with words that come between the subject and verb. The text below the sentence reads, the subject number is singular and requires a singular verb, even though the words “of farm workers” appear between the subject and verb.

5b Use a plural verb when two or more subjects are joined by and

Example 1:

Original sentence: A dot and a dash represents the letter A in Morse code.

Revised sentence: A dot and a dash represent the letter A in Morse code.

Example 2:

Original sentence: Basketball star Shaquille O’Neal, comedian D. L. Hughley, and actor Tom Arnold was all born on March 6.

Revised sentence: Basketball star Shaquille O’Neal, comedian D. L. Hughley, and actor Tom Arnold were all born on March 6.

5c Revise to make the verb agree with the subject closest to it when two or more subjects are joined by or, either . . . or, or neither . . . nor

When two or more singular subjects are joined by or, either . . . or, or neither . . . nor, use a singular verb.

✵ Math or accounting appears to be a suitable major for you.

✵ Either the waiter or the customer has misplaced the bill.

✵ Neither the doctor nor the patient is pessimistic about the prognosis.

When one singular and one plural subject are joined by or, either . . . or, or neither . . . nor, the verb should agree in number with the subject nearest to it.

Example 1: Neither the sailors nor the boat was harmed by the storm.

In the above sentence, the verb “was” agrees with the singular subject “boat”as it is nearest to it.

Example 2: Neither the boat nor the sailors were harmed by the storm.

In the above sentence, the verb “were” agrees with the plural subject “sailors” as it is nearest to it.

Example 3:

Original sentence: Either my daughters or my wife water that plant daily.

Revised sentence: Either my daughters or my wife waters that plant daily.

5d Use a singular verb with most collective nouns, such as family, couple, and class

When a collective noun refers to a group as one unit acting together, use a singular verb. When the members of the group are acting as individuals, use a plural verb. To make their meaning clearer and avoid awkwardness, writers often add members or a similar noun.

Example 1: The school committee has voted to increase teachers’ salaries.

In the above sentence, singular verb “has” is used with the collective noun “committee” which acts as a unit.

Example 2:

Original sentence: The family are living in a cramped apartment.

Revised sentence: The family is living in a cramped apartment.

Example 3: The team members are traveling by train, bus, and bike.

In the above sentence, the team members are acting individually.

Example 4:

Original sentence: The members of the jury is divided and unable to reach consensus.

Revised sentence: The members of the jury are divided and unable to reach consensus.

5e Use a singular verb with most indefinite pronouns, such as anyone, everyone, each, every, no one, and something

Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific person, place, or object. They refer to people, places, or things in general. Singular indefinite pronouns include the following: each, either, neither, anyone, anybody, anything, everyone, everybody, everything, one, no one, nobody, nothing, someone, somebody, something.

Example 1: Everyone in this room is welcome to express an opinion.

In the above sentence, singular verb “is” is used with the indefinite pronoun “everyone.”

Example 2:

Original sentence: Neither of the candidates have run for office before.

Revised sentence: Neither of the candidates has run for office before.

Other indefinite pronouns, such as several, both, many, and few, take a plural verb.

Example 1: Every year many succeed in starting new small businesses.

In the above sentence, plural verb “succeed” is used with the indefinite pronoun “many.”

Example 2:

Original sentence: Several of you jogs at least three miles a day.

Revised sentence: Several of you jog at least three miles a day.

Some indefinite pronouns, such as all, any, more, most, some, and none, take either a singular or a plural verb depending on the noun they refer to. To decide which verb to use, follow this rule: Treat the indefinite pronoun as singular if it refers to something that cannot be counted and as plural if it refers to more than one of something that can be counted.

Example 1:

Original sentence: Most of the water go into this kettle.

Revised sentence: Most of the water goes into this kettle.

In the above sentence, you cannot count water. So treat the indefinite pronoun as singular.

Example 2:

Original sentence: Some of the children in the study chooses immediate rather than delayed rewards.

Revised sentence: Some of the children in the study choose immediate rather than delayed rewards.

In the above sentence, you can count children. So treat the indefinite pronoun as plural.

5f Revise to make verbs agree with the antecedents of who, which, and that

When a relative pronoun (who, which, that) refers to a singular noun, use a singular verb. When it refers to a plural noun, use a plural verb.

Example 1: Toni Morrison, who enjoys unique success as both a popular and a literary author, won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1993.

In the above sentence, “who” refers to Toni Morrison, and because Toni Morrison is singular, the verb “enjoys” is singular.

Example 2: Look for stores that display this sign.

In the above sentence, “that” refers to “stores,” a plural noun, the verb “display,” is singular.

An antecedent is the noun or pronoun to which a pronoun refers.

A relative pronoun introduces a dependent clause that functions as an adjective: the patient who injured her leg.

Using one of the often leads to errors in subject-verb agreement. The phrase one of the plus a noun is plural.

However, only one of the plus a noun is singular: The cheetah is the only one of the big cats that has nonretractable claws.

5g Revise to make the verb agree with a subject that follows it

When a sentence begins with either here or there (which cannot function as a subject) or with a prepositional phrase, the subject often follows the verb. Look for the subject after the verb and make sure the subject and verb agree.

Example 1: There is a false panel somewhere in this room.

In the above sentence, the subject “panel” follows the verb “is.”

Example 2: Under the stairs lurks a solitary spider.

In the above sentence, the subject “spider” follows the verb “lurks.”

5h Make sure a linking verb agrees with its subject, not a word or phrase that renames the subject

Linking verbs, such as forms of be and feel, look, and taste, connect a subject with a word or phrase that renames or describes it. In sentences with linking verbs, the verb should agree with the subject.

Example 1: The bluebell is any of several plants in the lily family.

In the above sentence the verb “is” agrees with the subject “bluebell.”

Example 2: The issue discussed at the meeting was the low wages earned by factory workers.

In the above sentence, the verb “was” agrees with the subject “issue.”

5i Use a singular verb when the subject is a title

Original sentence: Gulliver’s Travels are a satire by the eighteenth-century British writer Jonathan Swift.

Revised sentence: Gulliver#x2019;s Travels is a satire by the eighteenth-century British writer Jonathan Swift.

5j Use singular verbs with singular nouns that end in -s, such as physics and news

EXERCISE 5.1

Correct any sentences with subject-verb agreement errors in the following paragraph. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Everyone in the colder climates want to know whether the next winter will be severe. The National Weather Service, however, usually predict the weather only a short time in advance. Another method of making weather predictions are popular with many Americans. According to folklore, there is a number of signs to alert people to a hard winter ahead. Among these signs are the brown stripe on a woolly bear caterpillar. If the brown stripe between the caterpillar’s two black stripes are wide, some people believe the winter will be a short one. Another of the signs that indicate a hard winter is a large apple harvest. And, of course, almost everyone in the United States have seen news stories on February 2 about groundhogs predicting the end of winter. Folk beliefs, which are not based on science, seems silly to many people. Neither the National Weather Service nor folklore are always able to forecast the weather accurately, however.

6 Verb Forms

Except for be, all English verbs have five forms.

✵ Many designers visit Milan for fashion shows each year.

✵ Sarah visited her best friend in Thailand.

✵ Students have visited the state capital every spring for decades.

✵ His cousin from Iowa is visiting this week.

✵ Maria visits her grandmother in Puerto Rico as often as possible.

6a Use -s or -es endings for present tense verbs that have third-person singular subjects

The -s form is made up of the verb’s base form plus -s or -es.

✵ Mr. King teaches English.

A third-person singular subject can consist of a singular noun, a singular pronoun (he, she, and it), or a singular indefinite pronoun (such as everyone).

Individuals may prefer a gender-neutral pronoun (zie for he/she or hir for him/her). Others may prefer to use they in a gender-neutral way (such as Nik called their parents last week). Respect the choices of those to whom you refer. Note, however, that instructors may want to ensure that you understand and can apply the traditional rules, so consult your instructor before using plural pronouns in a singular sense.

Example 1:

Original sentence: She want to be a veterinarian.

Revised sentence: She wants to be a veterinarian.

Example 2:

Original sentence: None of the townspeople understand him.

Revised sentence: None of the townspeople understands him.

6b Do not omit -ed endings on verbs

For regular verbs, both the past tense and the past participle are formed by adding -ed or -d to the base form of the verb.

For more on verb tense, see Table H1.1, p. 727.

✵ She claimed to be the czar’s daughter, Anastasia.

✵ The defendant faced his accusers.

Some speakers do not fully pronounce the -ed endings of verbs (asked, fixed, supposed to, used to). As a result, they may unintentionally omit these endings in their writing.

Example 1:

Original sentence: He talk to the safety inspectors about plant security.

Revised sentence: He talked to the safety inspectors about plant security.

Example 2:

Original sentence: They use to order lattes every morning.

Revised sentence: They used to order lattes every morning.

6c Use the correct form of irregular verbs such as lay and lie

The verb pairs lay and lie and sit and set have similar forms and are often confused. Each verb has its own meaning: lie means to recline or rest on a surface, and lay means to put or place something; sit means to be seated, as in a chair, and set means to place something on a surface.

Example 1:

Original sentence: Our dog likes to lay on the couch all afternoon.

Revised sentence: Our dog likes to lie on the couch all afternoon.

Example 2:

Original sentence: Let me set in this chair for a while.

Revised sentence: Let me sit in this chair for a while.

6d Use the active and passive voice appropriately

When a verb is in the active voice, the subject performs the action.

When a verb is in the passive voice, the subject receives the action.

The active voice expresses ideas more vividly and emphatically than does the passive voice. Whenever possible, use the active voice in your sentences.

Example 1:

Original sentence: Tea was thrown into Boston Harbor by the colonists.

Revised sentence: The colonists threw tea into Boston Harbor.

Example 2:

Original sentence: Illegal drugs are not allowed to be sold.

Revised sentence: No one is allowed to sell illegal drugs.

Sentences in the passive voice may seem indirect, as if the writer is purposely withholding information. In general, use the passive voice sparingly. There are two situations in which it is the better choice, however:

1. When you do not know or do not want to reveal who performed the action of the verb:

2. When you want to emphasize the object of the action rather than the person who causes the action:

6e Use the present tense when writing about literary works, even though they were written in the past

Original sentence: Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales depicted a tremendously varied group of travelers.

Revised sentence: Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales depicts a tremendously varied group of travelers.

6f Be sure to distinguish between the immediate past and the less immediate past

Use the past perfect form of the verb, formed by adding had to the past participle, to indicate an action that was completed before another action or a specified time.

For more on verb tense, see Table H1.1, p. 727.

EXERCISE 6.1

Correct the errors in verb form in the following paragraph. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass contain long, informally structured poems.

Revised sentence: Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass contains long, informally structured poems.

Walt Whitman was usually considered one of the greatest American poets. He spent almost his whole life in Brooklyn, New York, but he like to write about all of America. He was fired from several jobs for laziness and admitted that he liked to lay in bed until noon. But he had a vision: He wanted to create an entirely new kind of poetry. Rhyme was considered unimportant by him, and he did not think new American poetry needed formal structure. Unfortunately for Whitman, his great masterpiece, Leaves of Grass, was not an overnight success. Ralph Waldo Emerson admire it, but Whitman sold very few copies. He revise it continuously until his death. Today, people admires Leaves of Grass for its optimism, its beautiful language, its very modern appreciation of the diversity of America, and its astonishing openness about sexuality. Whitman’s body of work still move and surprise readers.

7 Pronoun Problems

Pronouns are words used in place of nouns. They provide a quick, convenient way to refer to a word that has already been named. Common problems in using pronouns include problems with pronoun reference, agreement, and case.

Pronoun Reference

A pronoun should refer clearly to its antecedent, the noun or pronoun for which it substitutes.

If an antecedent is missing or unclear, the meaning of the sentence is also unclear. Use the following guidelines to make certain your pronoun references are clear and correct.

7a Make sure each pronoun refers clearly to one antecedent

Example 1: The hip-hop radio station battled the alternative rock station for the highest ratings.

Example 2:

Original sentence: Eventually, it won.

Revised sentence: Eventually, the alternative rock station won.

The revised sentence makes it clear which station won; the alternative rock station.

7b Be sure to check for vague uses of they, it, and you

They, it, and you often refer vaguely to antecedents in preceding sentences or to no antecedent at all.

Example 1:

Original sentence: When political scientists study early political cartoons, it provides insight into historical events.

Revised sentence: When political scientists study early political cartoons, they gain insight into historical events.

Example 2:

Original sentence: In Florida, you often hear about hurricane threats of previous years.

Revised sentence: In Florida, people often talk about hurricane threats of previous years.

7c Make sure pronouns do not refer to adjectives or possessives

Pronouns must refer to nouns or other pronouns. Adjectives and possessives cannot serve as antecedents, although they may seem to suggest a noun the pronoun could refer to.

Example 1:

Original sentence: He became so depressed that it made him unable to get out of bed.

Revised sentence: He became so depressed that he was unable to get out of bed.

In the above sentence, the pronoun “it” seems to refer to the adjective depressed, which suggests the noun depression. This noun is not in the sentence, however.

Example 2:

Original sentence: The stock market’s rapid rise made it appear to be an attractive investment.

Revised sentence: The stock market’s rapid rise made stocks appear to be an attractive investment.

In the above sentence, the pronoun “it” seems to refer to stock market’s, which is a possessive, not a noun.

7d Make sure the pronouns who, whom, which, and that refer to clear, specific nouns

Original sentence: Lake-effect storms hit cities along the Great Lakes. That makes winter travel treacherous.

Revised sentence: Lake-effect storms hit cities along the Great Lakes. These storms make winter travel treacherous.

EXERCISE 7.1

Correct any errors in pronoun reference in the following sentences.

Original sentence: Innovative codes are important because it means that they will be hard to break.

Revised sentence: Innovative codes are important because they are hard to break.

1. A country at war must be able to convey information to military personnel. That is always a challenge.

2. The information’s importance often requires it to be transmitted secretly.

3. During World War II, U.S. government code specialists hired Navajo Indians because it is a difficult and little-studied language.

4. The Nazis’ Enigma code was extremely difficult to crack. This was an enormous problem for the Allied forces.

5. Alan Turing’s mathematical genius saved the day. He was a British civil servant who finally solved the Enigma code.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

Pronouns and antecedents must agree in person, number, and gender. The most common agreement error occurs when pronouns and antecedents do not agree in number. In general, if the antecedent is singular, use a singular pronoun; if the antecedent is plural, use a plural pronoun. But note that English may be in transition. Many authorities, including the Modern Language Association (MLA), now accept they, their, them, and theirs as singular pronouns. However, instructors may want to know that you understand the traditional rules and can apply them, so consult your instructor before using plural pronouns in a singular sense.

An antecedent is the noun or pronoun to which a pronoun refers.

Person indicates whether the subject is speaking (first person: I, we), is being spoken to (second person: you), or is being spoken about (third person: he, she, it, they).

Number is a term that classifies pronouns as singular (I, you, he, she, it) or plural (we, you, they).

7e Use singular pronouns to refer to indefinite pronouns that are singular in meaning

Singular indefinite pronouns include the following:

Gender is a way of classifying pronouns as masculine (he, him), feminine (she, her), or neuter (it, its).

An indefinite pronoun does not refer to a specific person, place, or object. It refers to people, places, or things in general (anywhere, everyone, everything).

Example 1: Each of the experiments produced its desired result.

In the above sentence, singular pronoun “its” refers to the singular indefinite pronoun “each.”

Example 2: If anyone wants me, give him or her my email address.

In the above sentence, singular pronoun “him or her” refers to the singular indefinite pronoun “anyone.”

Example 3: Everyone in America should exercise his or her right to vote so his or her voice can be heard.

In the above sentence, singular pronoun “his or her” refers to the singular indefinite pronoun “everyone.”

If the pronoun and antecedent do not agree, change either the pronoun or the indefinite pronoun to which it refers.

Example 1:

Original sentence: Everyone should check their credit card statements monthly.

Revised sentence: People should check their credit card statements monthly.

If you must use a singular pronoun, you may want to use he or she or him or her to avoid sexism.

Example 2:

Original sentence: Everyone should check their credit card statement monthly.

Revised sentence: Everyone should check his or her credit card statement monthly.

Note: Overuse of him or her and his or her can create awkward sentences. To avoid this problem, you can revise your sentences in one of two ways: by using a plural antecedent and a plural pronoun or by omitting the pronouns altogether.

Alternatively, if your instructor agrees, you may be able to use they or their in a singular sense.

Original sentence: No one should lose their job because of family responsibilities.

Revised sentence: No one should lose a job because of family responsibilities.

The indefinite pronouns all, any, more, most, and some can be either singular or plural, depending on how they are used in sentences. When an indefinite pronoun refers to something that can be counted, use a plural pronoun to refer to it. When an indefinite pronoun refers to something that cannot be counted, use a singular pronoun to refer to it.

✵ Of the tropical plants studied, some have proven their usefulness in fighting disease.

o Because the word plants is a plural, countable noun, the pronoun some is plural in this sentence.

✵ The water was warm, and most of it was murky.

o Water is not countable, so most is singular.

7f Use a plural pronoun to refer to a compound antecedent joined by and

Exception: When the singular antecedents joined by and refer to the same person, place, or thing, use a singular pronoun.

Exception: When each or every comes before the antecedent, use a singular pronoun.

When a compound antecedent is joined by or or nor, the pronoun should agree with the noun closer to the verb.

Original sentence: Either the panda or the sea otters should have its new habitat soon.

Revised sentence: Either the panda or the sea otters should have their new habitat soon.

7g Use a singular or plural pronoun to refer to a collective noun, depending on the meaning

A collective noun names a group of people or things acting together or individually (herd, class, team) and may be referred to by a singular or plural pronoun depending on your intended meaning. When you refer to a group acting together as a unit, use a singular pronoun.

When you refer to the members of the group as acting individually, use a plural pronoun.

The sentence reads, “After the false alarm, members of the bomb squad returned to their homes.” In the above sentence, the plural pronoun “their” is used to refer to “members,” since the members of the squad acted individually.

EXERCISE 7.2

Correct any errors in pronoun-antecedent agreement in the following sentences. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: A team of researchers might disagree on its conclusion about the disappearance of the dinosaur.

Revised sentence: A team of researchers might disagree on their conclusion about the disappearance of the dinosaur.

1. Neither the many species of dinosaurs nor the flightless dodo bird could prevent their own extinction.

2. Every scientist has their own ideas about the state of the environment.

3. However, most believe that their findings indicate the dodo died out because of competition from other species.

4. In one way, animals resemble plants: Some are “weeds” because it has the ability to thrive under many conditions.

5. Any species that cannot withstand their competitors may be doomed to extinction.

6. When a “weed” and a delicate native species compete for its survival, the native species usually loses.

7. If the snail darter and the spotted owl lose their fight to survive, should humans care?

8. Everyone should be more concerned about the extinction of plants and animals than they seem to be.

9. Every extinction has their effect on other species.

10. The earth has experienced several mass extinctions in its history, but another would take their toll on the quality of human life.

Pronoun Case

Most of the time you will automatically know which form, or case, of a pronoun to use: the subjective, objective, or possessive case. A pronoun’s case indicates its function in a sentence. When a pronoun functions as a subject in a sentence, the subjective case (I) is used. When a pronoun functions as a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition, the objective case (me) is used. When a pronoun indicates ownership, the possessive case (mine) is used.

A direct object receives the action of the verb: Pat drove me home.

An indirect object indicates to or for whom an action is performed: I gave her the keys.

An object of a preposition is a word or phrase that follows a preposition: with me, above the table.

Use the following guidelines to correct errors in pronoun case.

7h Read the sentence aloud without the noun and the word and to decide which pronoun to use in a compound construction (Yolanda and I, Yolanda and me)

7i Read the sentence aloud using the pronoun as the subject when a pronoun follows a form of the verb be (is, are, was, were)

Original sentence: The best singer in the group is her.

Revised sentence: The best singer in the group is she.

7j Read the sentence aloud without the noun to determine whether we or us should come before a noun

✵ If we hikers frighten them, the bears may attack.

o If you mentally delete hikers, the sentence sounds correct: If we frighten them, the bears may attack.

✵ The older children never paid attention to us kindergarteners.

o If you mentally delete kindergarteners, the sentence sounds correct: The older children never paid attention to us.

7k Choose the correct pronoun form for a comparison using than or as by mentally adding the verb that is implied

✵ Diedre is a better athlete than I [am].

✵ The coach likes her better than [he likes] me.

An object is the target or recipient of the action described by the verb: I gave her the keys.

An object of a preposition is a word or phrase that follows a preposition: with him, above the table.

7l Use who or whoever when the pronoun functions as the subject of a sentence. Use whom or whomever when the pronoun functions as the object of a verb or preposition

To decide whether to use who or whom in a particular question, answer the question yourself by using the words he or him or she or her. If you use he or she in the answer, you should use who in the question. If you use him or her in the answer, use whom in the question.

Similarly, to decide whether to use who or whom in a dependent clause, turn the dependent clause into a question. The pronoun you use to answer that question will tell you whether who or whom should appear in the clause.

A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought.

Original sentence: Aphra Behn’s Oronooko dramatizes the life of a slave whom came from African royalty.

Revised sentence: Aphra Behn’s Oronooko dramatizes the life of a slave who came from African royalty.

In the above sentence, if you ask the question (Who, whom) came from African royalty?, the answer, He came from African royalty, indicates that the correct pronoun is who.

Original sentence: The leader who we seek must unite the community.

Revised sentence: The leader whom we seek must unite the community.

In the above sentence, if you ask the question (Who, whom) do we seek?, the answer, We seek him, indicates that the correct pronoun is whom.

7m Use a possessive pronoun to modify a gerund

✵ His moralizing has never been welcome.

o The possessive pronoun his modifies the gerund moralizing.

Gerunds are often confused with participles because both end in -ing.

A gerund is an -ing form of a verb that functions as a noun (complaining, jogging).

A participle is an -ing or -ed form of a verb that is used as an adjective (the terrifying monster) or with a helping verb to indicate tense (he was running away). Pronouns used with participles should be in the objective case; pronouns used with gerunds should be in the possessive case.

EXERCISE 7.3

Correct any errors in pronoun reference, agreement, and case in the following paragraph. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: Her and her husband married for love, which was unusual at the time.

Revised sentence: She and her husband married for love, which was unusual at the time.

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, whom was a wealthy aristocrat, was one of the eighteenth century’s most interesting characters. Few women then were as well educated as her. Every parent wanted their daughter to be charming, not intellectual, so Lady Mary secretly taught herself Latin. When her husband was appointed ambassador to Turkey, she and he traveled there together. Her letters to friends in London, which were later published, were filled with detail. She described a Turkish bath’s atmosphere so vividly that it became a popular setting for paintings and literature. She also learned that smallpox was rare in Turkey. Of the Turkish people she met, most had gotten his or her immunity to smallpox from a kind of inoculation. This had an effect on Lady Mary herself. Lady Mary’s children were among the first British citizens who were inoculated against it.

8 Shifts and Mixed Constructions

A shift is a sudden, unexpected change in point of view, verb tense, voice, mood, or level of diction that may confuse your readers. Shifting from a direct to an indirect question or quotation can also confuse readers. A mixed construction is a sentence containing parts that do not sensibly fit together. This chapter will help you identify and correct shifts and mixed constructions in your sentences.

Shifts

8a Refer to yourself, your audience, and the people you are writing about in a consistent way

Person shows the writer’s point of view. Personal pronouns indicate whether the subject is the speaker (first person: I, we), the person spoken to (second person: you), or the person or thing spoken about (third person: he, she, it, they, one).

For more on point of view, see Chapter 4, p. 109.

Original sentence: When people study a foreign language, you also learn about another culture.

Revised sentence: When people study a foreign language, they also learn about another culture.

8b Maintain consistency in verb tense throughout a paragraph or an essay unless the meaning requires you to change tenses

Shifts between the present and past tense are among the most common shifts writers make.

Original sentence: The city’s crime rate continues to drop, but experts disagreed on the reasons.

Revised sentence: The city’s crime rate continues to drop, but experts disagree on the reasons.

8c Change verb tense when you want to indicate an actual time change

Use the present tense for events that occur in the present; use the past tense for events that occurred in the past. When the time changes, be sure to change the tense. Notice the intentional shifts in the following passage (the verbs are in italics):

Every spring migratory birds return to cooler climates to raise their young. This year a pair of bluejays is occupying a nest in my yard, and I spy on them. The hatchlings are growing larger and developing feathers. Last spring, robins built the nest that the jays now call home, and I watched them every morning until the young birds left home for the last time.

As the events switch from this year (present) to the previous year (past), the writer changes from the present tense (is occupying) to the past tense (built).

For more on verb tense, see Table H1.1, p. 727.

8d Use a consistent voice

Needless shifts between the active voice and the passive voice can disorient readers and create wordy sentences.

In the active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action.

In the passive voice, the subject receives the action.

Example 1:

Original sentence: One group of volunteers was given a placebo, and the researchers treated another group with the new drug.

Revised sentence: The researchers gave one group of volunteers a placebo, and they treated another group with the new drug.

Example 2:

Original sentence: Drought and windstorms made farming impossible, and many families were forced to leave Oklahoma by the specter of starvation.

Revised sentence: Drought and windstorms made farming impossible, and the specter of starvation forced many families to leave Oklahoma.

To change a sentence from the passive voice to the active voice, make the performer of the action the subject of the sentence. The original subject of the sentence becomes the direct object. Delete the form of the verb be.

For more on voice, see 6d.

8e Avoid sudden shifts from indirect to direct questions or quotations

An indirect question tells what a question is or was.

Avoid shifting from direct to indirect questions.

Original sentence: Sal asked what could I do to solve the problem.

Revised sentence: Sal asked what he could do to solve the problem.

8f Use a consistent mood throughout a paragraph or an essay

Mood indicates whether the sentence states a fact or asks a question (indicative mood); gives a command or direction (imperative mood); or expresses a condition contrary to fact, a wish, or a suggestion (subjunctive mood). The subjunctive mood is also used for hypothetical situations or impossible or unlikely events.

INCONSISTENT

You shouldn’t expect to learn ballroom dancing immediately, and remember that even Fred Astaire had to start somewhere. First, find a qualified instructor. Then, you should not be embarrassed even if everyone else seems more graceful than you are. Finally, keep your goal in mind, and you need to practice, practice, practice.

This paragraph contains shifts between the indicative and imperative moods.

CONSISTENT

Don’t expect to learn ballroom dancing immediately, and remember that even Fred Astaire had to start somewhere. First, find a qualified instructor. Then, don’t be embarrassed if everyone else seems more graceful than you are. Finally, keep your goal in mind, and practice, practice, practice.

This revised paragraph uses the imperative mood consistently.

8g Use a consistent level of diction

Your level of diction can range from formal to informal. The level you choose should be appropriate for your audience, your subject matter, and your purpose for writing. As you revise your essays, look for inappropriate shifts in diction, such as from a formal to an informal tone or vice versa.

Original paragraph: William H. Whyte’s studies of human behavior in public space yielded a number of surprises. Perhaps most unexpected was the revelation that people seem to be drawn toward, rather than driven from, crowded spaces. They tend to congregate near the entrances of stores or on street corners. Plazas and shopping districts crowded with pedestrians attract more pedestrians. For some reason, people seem to get a charge out of hanging out where lots of other folks are hanging out, too.

Revised paragraph: William H. Whyte’s studies of human behavior in public space yielded a number of surprises. Perhaps most unexpected was the revelation that people seem to be drawn toward, rather than driven from, crowded spaces. They tend to congregate near the entrances of stores or on street corners. Plazas and shopping districts crowded with pedestrians attract more pedestrians. For some reason, people seem to enjoy gathering together in public spaces.

For academic writing, including class assignments and research papers, use formal language.

For more on levels of diction, see Chapter 9, pp. 215—17.

EXERCISE 8.1

Correct the shifts in person, verb tense, voice, mood, and level of diction in the following paragraph.

Original sentence: Some artists long ago used techniques that still surprised modern students of their work.

Revised sentence: Some artists long ago used techniques that still surprise modern students of their work.

Museum visitors can see paintings by the seventeenth-century Dutch artist Jan Vermeer, but you cannot see how he achieved his remarkable effects. Most of his paintings showed simply furnished household rooms. The people and objects in these rooms seem so real that the paintings resembled photographs. Vermeer’s use of perspective and light would also contribute to the paintings’ realism. Some art historians believe he used a gizmo called a camera obscura. This machine projected an image onto a flat surface so you could draw it. For most experts, Vermeer’s possible use of technological aids does not make his totally fabulous results less impressive. It is agreed by art historians that the paintings are masterpieces. Vermeer’s paintings are admired even more now than they are in his own lifetime.

Mixed Constructions

8h Make sure clauses and phrases fit together logically

A mixed construction contains phrases or clauses that do not work together logically and that cause confusion in meaning.

The sentence starts with a subject (The fact) followed by a dependent clause (that the marathon is twenty-six miles). The sentence needs a predicate to complete the independent clause; instead it includes a noun (a length) and another dependent clause (that explains why I have never finished it). The independent clause that begins with The fact is never completed.

To avoid mixed constructions in your writing, it often helps to check the words that connect clauses and phrases, especially prepositions and conjunctions.

8i Make subjects and predicates consistent

Faulty predication occurs when a subject does not work grammatically with its predicate.

Original sentence: Rising health-care costs decrease health insurance for many people.

Revised sentence: Rising health-care costs decrease the number of people who can afford health insurance. In this sentence, costs do not decrease health insurance.

8j Avoid the constructions is when, is where, and reason . . . is because

Example 1:

Original sentence: Gravitation is where one body is being attracted by another.

Revised sentence: Gravitation is the attraction of one body for another.

Example 2:

Original sentence: The reason I enjoy jogging is because it provides outdoor exercise.

Revised sentence: I enjoy jogging because it provides outdoor exercise.

EXERCISE 8.2

Correct the mixed constructions in the following sentences.

Original sentence: The reason internships are valuable is because they give students real-world experience.

Revised sentence: Internships are valuable because they give students real-world experience.

1. Surveys showing that college graduates who intern receive higher salary offers than their classmates who do not.

2. The fact that students must be careful, as all internships are not created equal.

3. A good internship is when the intern gains knowledge and skills in a professional environment.

4. Other companies may use unpaid interns that is free labor instead of hiring full-time employees.

5. Companies do not meet federal requirements, because they must pay minimum wage or face lawsuits.

9 Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs are powerful. Used appropriately, they can add precision and force to your writing, as the following excerpt demonstrates:

Seated cross-legged on a brocade pillow, wrapped in burgundy robes, was a short, rotund man with a shiny pate. He looked very old and very tired. Chhongba bowed reverently, spoke briefly to him in the Sherpa tongue, and indicated for us to come forward.

—Jon Krakauer, Into Thin Air

Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns and indicate which one, what kind, or how many. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, clauses, or entire sentences and indicate how, when, where, how often, or to what extent. (See also Table H1.1, p. 727.)

The two most common errors involving adjectives and adverbs occur when writers use (1) an adjective instead of an adverb (or vice versa) and (2) the wrong form of an adjective or adverb in a comparison. Use the following guidelines to identify and correct these and other common errors in your writing.

9a Use adverbs, not adjectives, to modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs

Although in conversation you may often use adjectives in place of adverbs, you should be careful in your writing to use adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

Example 1:

Original sentence: Those pants are awful expensive.

Revised sentence: Those pants are awfully expensive.

Example 2:

Original sentence: The headlights shone bright.

Revised sentence: The headlights shone brightly.

9b Use adjectives, not adverbs, after linking verbs

Linking verbs, often forms of be and other verbs such as feel, look, make, and seem, express a state of being. A linking verb takes a subject complement — a word group that completes or renames the subject of the sentence. Verbs such as feel and look can also be action verbs. When they function as action verbs in a sentence, they may be modified by an adverb.

If you are not sure whether a word should be an adjective or adverb, determine how it is used in the sentence. If the word modifies a noun, it should be an adjective.

Adjective sentence: Our waiter looked slow.

In the above sentence, “slow” is the adjective that modifies the noun “waiter,” and looked is the linking verb.

Adverb sentence: Our waiter looked slowly for some menus.

In the above sentence, “slowly” is the adverb that modifies the verb “looked,” which is expressing an action and is not a linking verb; slowly modifies looked.

9c Use good and bad as adjectives; use well and badly as adverbs

Example 1: Einstein was not a good student.

In the above sentence, the adjective “good” modifies the noun “student.”

Example 2: Einstein did not perform well in school.

In the above sentence, the adverb “well” modifies the verb “perform.”

Example 3:

Original sentence: He did bad in the leading role.

Revised sentence: He did badly in the leading role.

In the above sentence, the adverb “badly” modifies the verb “did.”

When you are describing someone’s health, well can also function as an adjective.

9d Be careful not to use adjectives such as real and sure to modify adverbs or other adjectives

Original sentence: The produce was crisp and real fresh.

Revised sentence: The produce was crisp and really fresh.

In the above sentence, the adverb “really” modifies the adjective “fresh.”

9e Avoid double negatives

A sentence with two negative words or phrases contains a double negative, which conveys a positive meaning. Do not use two negatives in a sentence unless you want to express a positive meaning (for example, not uncommon means “common”).

Example 1:

Original sentence: The company is not doing nothing to promote its incentive plan.

Revised sentence: The company is not doing anything to promote its incentive plan.

Example 2:

Original sentence: No one under eighteen can’t vote in the presidential election.

Revised sentence: No one under eighteen can vote in the presidential election.

POSITIVE MEANING INTENDED

✵ Athletic sportswear is not uncommon as casual attire.

9f Use the comparative form of adjectives and adverbs to compare two things; use the superlative form to compare three or more things

Adjectives and adverbs can be used to compare two or more persons, objects, actions, or ideas. The comparative form of an adjective or adverb compares two items. The superlative form compares three or more items. Use the list below to check the comparative and superlative forms of most regular adjectives and adverbs in your sentences.

✵ *To form the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives ending in -y, change the y to i and add -er or -est.

Irregular adjectives and adverbs form their comparative and superlative forms in unpredictable ways, as the following list illustrates.

Do not use comparative or superlative forms with absolute concepts, such as unique and perfect. Something cannot be more or less unique, for example; it is either unique or not unique.

Original sentence: This is the most unique solution to the pollution problem.

Revised sentence: This is a unique solution to the pollution problem.

9g Check your comparisons to be sure they are complete when using comparative and superlative forms

An incomplete comparison can leave your reader confused about what is being compared.

9h Do not use more or most with the -er or -est form of an adjective or adverb

Original sentence: The hypothesis must be more clearer.

Revised sentence: The hypothesis must be clearer.

EXERCISE 9.1

Correct any errors involving adjectives and adverbs in the following paragraph. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: Originating in China, feng shui is a traditionally art of balancing elements to achieve harmony.

Revised sentence: Originating in China, feng shui is a traditional art of balancing elements to achieve harmony.

Feng shui is taken very serious in many Asian societies. Some Hong Kong business executives, for example, will not feel comfortably working in an office until it has been approved by a feng shui master. Other people are more interested in feng shui for its elegance. A room designed with this idea in mind looks tranquilly. The name feng shui means “wind and water,” and balancing elements is the more important aspect of the art. Some people believe that this balance brings good luck. Others will admit only that surroundings can have a psychologically effect. It is easier to feel comfortable in a room designed according to feng shui principles. The placement of doors, windows, and furnishings contributes to the peaceful effect. Whether feng shui is magic or simple great interior design, something about it seems to work.

10 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

A modifier is a word or group of words that describes, changes, qualifies, or limits the meaning of another word or group of words in a sentence.

Example 1: The contestant smiled delightedly.

In the above sentence, the adverb “delightedly” modifies the verb “smiled.”

Example 2: Pretending to be surprised, he greeted the guests.

In the above sentence, the adjective phrase “Pretending to be surprised” modifies the pronoun “he.”

Modifiers that are carefully placed in sentences give your readers a clear picture of the details you want to convey. However, when a sentence contains a misplaced modifier, the reader must determine which word or group of words the modifier is supposed to be describing.

10a Place modifiers close to the words they describe

10b Make sure each modifier clearly modifies only one word or phrase in a sentence

When a modifier is placed near or next to the word or phrase it modifies, it may also be near another word it could conceivably modify. When a modifier’s placement may cause such ambiguity, rewrite the sentence, placing the modifier so that it clearly refers to the word or phrase it is supposed to modify.

Unclear sentence: The film’s attempt to portray war accurately depicts a survivor’s anguish.

From the above sentence, does the film attempt to portray war accurately, or does it accurately depict a survivor’s anguish? The following two revisions eliminate the uncertainty.

Revised sentence 1: In its attempt to portray war accurately, the film depicts a survivor’s anguish.

Revised sentence 2: The film accurately depicts a survivor’s anguish in its attempt to portray war realistically.

10c Revise a dangling modifier by rewriting the sentence

A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that does not modify or refer to anything in a sentence. Instead, it seems to modify something that has been left out of the sentence. A dangling modifier can make the meaning of a sentence unclear, inaccurate, or even comical. Most dangling modifiers appear at the beginning or end of sentences.

To revise a sentence with a dangling modifier, follow these steps:

1. Identify the word or words that the modifier is supposed to modify.

2. Revise the sentence to correct the confusion either by changing the modifier into a clause with its own subject and verb or by rewriting the sentence so that the word being modified becomes the subject.

Example 1:

Original sentence: After signing a thrilling ballad, the crowd surged toward the stage.

Revised sentence: After Kelly sang a thrilling ballad, the crowd surged toward the stage

Example 2:

Original sentence: Laying an average of ten eggs a day, the neighboring farmer is proud of his henhouse.

Revised sentence: Laying an average of ten eggs a day, his prize chickens give the farmer reason to be proud of his henhouse.

EXERCISE 10.1

Correct any misplaced or dangling modifiers in the following paragraph. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: The measurement is now based on atomic vibrations of one second.

Revised sentence: The measurement of one second is now based on atomic vibrations.

Making sure standard weights and measures are the same all over the world is an important task. To trade internationally, a kilogram in Mexico must weigh the same as a kilogram in Japan. In the past, countries set standards for weighing and measuring individually. One English king declared a yard to be the distance from his nose to his thumb egotistically. Weight was once measured in barleycorns, so unethical merchants soaked barleycorns to make them heavier in water. Today, the metric system is the worldwide standard, and the weight of the U.S. pound is based even on the standard kilogram. In France, a cylinder is the world standard kilogram made of platinum. Securely, this official kilogram is kept in an airtight container. Nevertheless, losing a few billionths of a gram of weight each year, world standards might eventually be affected. Hoping to find a permanent solution, scientists want to base the kilogram measurement on an unchanging natural phenomenon.

Use Punctuation Correctly

11 End Punctuation

The end of a sentence can be marked with a period (.), a question mark (?), or an exclamation point (!).

11a Use a period to mark the end of a sentence that makes a statement, gives an instruction, or includes an indirect question; use periods with most abbreviations

Writers seldom omit the period at the end of a sentence that makes a statement or gives directions.

Writers sometimes mistake an indirect question for a direct one, however.

Original sentence: Most visitors want to know where the dinosaur bones were found? In the above sentence, the question mark is crossed out and replaced with a period.

Revised sentence: Most visitors want to know where the dinosaur bones were found.

The above sentence states what question was asked; it does not ask the question directly.

An indirect question is a statement that reports what was asked or is being asked: He asked where the classroom was.

Many abbreviations use periods (Mass., Co., St.,). If you are not sure whether an abbreviation should include periods, check a dictionary.

When an abbreviation that uses periods ends a sentence, an additional period is not needed.

Original sentence: My brother works for Apple Computer, Inc..

Revised sentence: My brother works for Apple Computer, Inc.

Note, however, that the Modern Language Association (MLA) recommends omitting periods in abbreviations that consist of capital letters (IBM, USA, BC) but including periods in abbreviations that consist of lowercase letters (a.m.).

11b Use a question mark to end a sentence that asks a direct question

When a question is also a quotation, the question mark is placed within the quotation marks (see also 14d).

Original sentence: “What did she want”? Marcia asked.

Revised sentence: “What did she want?” Marcia asked.

11c Use an exclamation point to end a sentence that expresses a strong emotion or a forceful command

✵ Altering experimental results to make them conform to a hypothesis is never ethical!

Use exclamation points sparingly; they lose their impact when used too frequently.

Original sentence: Government officials immediately suspected terrorism! In the above sentence, the exclamation mark is crossed out and replaced with a period.

Revised sentence: Government officials immediately suspected terrorism.

EXERCISE 11.1

Correct any errors in the use of end punctuation marks in the following sentences. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: Is it possible that hemophilia in the Russian czar’s family contributed to the Russian Revolution. In the above sentence, the end period is crossed out and replaced with question mark.

Revised sentence: Is it possible that hemophilia in the Russian czar’s family contributed to the Russian Revolution?

1. When the daughters of Queen Victoria of England, who carried the gene for hemophilia, married royalty in Germany and Russia, those royal families inherited hemophilia as well?

2. The Russian czar’s only son and heir to the throne suffered from hemophilia.

3. You might ask if internal bleeding can occur when a hemophiliac receives a bruise?

4. Czar Nicholas and his wife Alexandra often saw their little boy in terrible pain!

5. A phony monk named Rasputin eased the child’s pain, but was he a gifted healer or just a con man.

12 Commas

A comma (,) is used to separate parts of a sentence from one another. Commas, when you use them correctly, make your sentences clear and help readers understand your meaning.

12a Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet) that joins two independent clauses

Example 1:

Original sentence: The ball flew past the goalie but the score did not count. In the above sentence, a comma is inserted after the word, goalie.

Revised sentence: The ball flew past the goalie, but the score did not count.

Example 2:

Original sentence: Her dog was enormous so many people found it threatening. in the above sentence, a comma is inserted after the word, enormous.

Revised sentence: Her dog was enormous, so many people found it threatening.

An independent clause contains a subject and verb and can stand alone as a sentence.

12b Use a comma to separate three or more items in a series

A series is a list of three or more items — words, phrases, or clauses.

✵ Dancing, singing, and acting are just a few of her talents.

✵ Sunflowers grew on the hillsides, along the roads, and in the middle of every pasture.

Some writers omit the comma before a coordinating conjunction (such as and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet) in a brief series when using a casual or journalistic style. Occasionally this omission can create confusion, so it is better to include the final comma.

A comma is not used after the last item in a series.

Original sentence: Aphids, slugs, and beetles, can severely damage a crop.

Revised sentence: Aphids, slugs, and beetles can severely damage a crop.

See also 13c on when to use semicolons to separate items in a series.

12c Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives that modify the same noun when they are not joined by a coordinating word

✵ Rescue workers found the frightened, hungry child.

To be sure a comma is needed, try reversing the two adjectives. If the phrase still sounds correct when the adjectives are reversed, a comma is needed. If the phrase sounds wrong, a comma is not needed.

✵ The airy, open atrium makes visitors feel at home.

o The phrase open, airy atrium sounds right, so a comma is needed.

✵ Local businesses donated the bright red uniforms.

o The phrase red, bright uniforms sounds wrong because bright modifies red uniforms in the original sentence. A comma is not needed.

12d Use a comma to separate introductory words, phrases, and clauses from the rest of a sentence

Exception: A comma is not needed after a single word or short phrase or clause when there is no possibility of confusion.

✵ Then a rainbow appeared.

12e Use a comma to set off a nonrestrictive word group from the rest of the sentence

A nonrestrictive word group describes or modifies a word or phrase in a sentence, but it does not change the meaning of the word or phrase. To decide whether a comma is needed, read the sentence without the word group. If the basic meaning is unchanged, a comma is needed.

✵ Most people either love or hate fruitcake, which is a traditional holiday dessert.

o The meaning of fruitcake is not changed by the relative clause which is a traditional holiday dessert, so the word group is nonrestrictive and a comma is needed.

✵ The child wearing a tutu delights in ballet lessons.

o The phrase wearing a tutu identifies which child delights in ballet lessons, so the word group is restrictive — necessary to explain what the word it modifies means — and a comma is not needed.

12f Use a comma to set off parenthetical expressions

A parenthetical expression provides extra information. It can also be a transitional word or phrase (however, for example, at the beginning) that is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.

✵ Furthermore, his essay had not been proofread.

✵ Islamic countries were, in fact, responsible for preserving much classical scientific knowledge.

12g Use commas with dates, addresses, titles, and numbers

✵ She graduated on June 8, 2020.

When you give only a month and year, a comma is not needed.

✵ She graduated in June 2020.

Place a comma after the date when it appears before the end of the sentence.

✵ The 2018 Winter Olympics began on February 9, 2018, in Pyeongchang, South Korea.

When you give an address within a sentence, do not place a comma between the state and the ZIP code.

✵ Send the package to PO Box 100, McPherson, Kansas 67460.

Separate a name from a title with a comma.

✵ The featured speaker was Kate Silverstein, Ph.D.

Use commas in numbers that have more than four digits.

✵ Estimates of the number of protesters ranged from 250,000 to 700,000.

In a number with four digits, the comma is optional: 1500 or 1,500.

12h Use a comma to separate a direct quotation from the words that explain it

A direct quotation gives a person’s exact words, either spoken or written, set off by quotation marks.

✵ She asked, “What’s the score?”

Place the comma before the closing quotation mark.

Original sentence: “Wait and see”, was his infuriating response.

Revised sentence: “Wait and see,” was his infuriating response.

See also 14b.

12i Use commas to set off the name of someone directly addressed, to set off an echo question, and with a “not” phrase

12j Omit unnecessary commas

Keep the following rules in mind as you edit and proofread your papers for common errors in comma usage:

Omit a comma between a subject and verb.

Original sentence: The poet Wilfred Owen, was killed a week before World War I ended. In the above sentence, the comma after Owen is crossed out.

Revised sentence: The poet Wilfred Owen was killed a week before World War I ended.

In the above example, “the poet Wilfred Owen” is the subject and “was killed” is the verb.

Omit a comma between a verb and complement.

Original sentence: The school referendum is considered, very likely to pass. In the above sentence, the comma after considered is crossed out.

Revised sentence: The school referendum is considered very likely to pass.

In the above example, “is considered” is the verb and “very likely to pass” is the complement.

A complement is a word or group of words that describes or renames a subject or object.

Omit a comma between an adjective and the word it modifies.

Original sentence: A growing family needs a large, house. In the above sentence, the comma after large is crossed out.

Revised sentence: A growing family needs a large house.

In the above example, “large” is the adjective and “house” is the noun modified.

Omit a comma between two verbs in a compound predicate.

Original sentence: We sat, and waited for our punishment. In the above sentence, the comma after sat is crossed out.

Revised sentence: We sat and waited for our punishment.

In the above example, “sat and waited” is the compound predicate.

Omit a comma between two nouns or pronouns in a compound subject.

Original sentence: Harold Johnson, and Margaret Simpson led the expedition. In the above sentence, the comma after Johnson is crossed out.

Revised sentence: Harold Johnson and Margaret Simpson led the expedition.

In the above example, “Harold Johnson and Margaret Simpson” is the compound subject."

Omit a comma before a coordinating word joining two dependent clauses.

Original sentence: The band began to play before we arrived, but after the rain stopped. In the above sentence, the comma after arrived is crossed out.

Revised sentence: The band began to play before we arrived but after the rain stopped.

In the above example, “before we arrived” and “after the rain stopped” are the two dependent clauses.

Omit a comma after than in a comparison.

Original sentence: The Homestead Act made the cost of land to pioneers less than, the price the government had paid. In the above sentence, the comma after, less than is crossed out.

Revised sentence: The Homestead Act made the cost of land to pioneers less than the price the government had paid.

Omit a comma after like or such as.

Original sentence: Direct marketing techniques such as, mass mailings and telephone solicitations can be effective. In the above sentence, the comma after, such as is crossed out.

Revised sentence: Direct marketing techniques such as mass mailings and telephone solicitations can be effective.

Omit commas after a question mark, exclamation point, or dash; before an opening parenthesis; or with a set of parentheses.

Example 1:

Original sentence: “Where have you been?,” she would always ask. In the above sentence, the comma after the question mark is crossed out.

Revised sentence: “Where have you been?” she would always ask.

Example 2:

Original sentence: “Stop!,” the guard shouted. In the above sentence, the comma after the exclamation mark is crossed out.

Revised sentence: “Stop!” the guard shouted.

Example 3:

Original sentence: Keep spending to a minimum,—our resources are limited—and throw nothing away. In the above sentence, the comma after the word, minimum is crossed out.

Revised sentence: Keep spending to a minimum—our resources are limited—and throw nothing away.

Example 4:

Original sentence: Fast food, (which is usually high in fat), is growing in popularity all over the world. In the above sentence, the comma after the parenthesis is crossed out.

Revised sentence: Fast food (which is usually high in fat) is growing in popularity all over the world.

Omit commas around words that rename and restrict another word before them.

If the words are restrictive — necessary to explain what the word they modify means — do not enclose them with commas.

Original sentence: The man, who brought his car in for transmission work, is a lawyer. In the above sentence, comma after the word, work is crossed out.

Revised sentence: The man who brought his car in for transmission work is a lawyer.

EXERCISE 12.1

Correct any errors in the use of commas in the following sentences. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: After slavery was abolished in New York in 1827 several black settlements were established in what is now New York City. In the above sentence, a comma is inserted after 1827.

Revised sentence: After slavery was abolished in New York in 1827, several black settlements were established in what is now New York City.

1. Seneca Village a crowded shantytown on the Upper West Side was the home of many poorer black New Yorkers.

2. The land became part of Central Park and everyone, who lived there, had to leave in the 1850s.

3. In present-day Brooklyn, there was once a middle-class black settlement, called Weeksville.

4. Susan Smith McKinney-Steward, was born in Weeksville, and was the valedictorian of New York Medical College in 1870.

5. Weeksville was a success story, for some of the houses survived into the twentieth century and have been preserved as historical monuments.

EXERCISE 12.2

Correct any errors in the use of commas in the following paragraph. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: In June, 1998, fifty years after Korczak Ziolkowski began sculpting the Crazy Horse monument, the face of Crazy Horse was unveiled. In the above sentence, the comma after the word, June is crossed out.

Revised sentence: In June 1998, fifty years after Korczak Ziolkowski began sculpting the Crazy Horse monument, the face of Crazy Horse was unveiled.

A monument to the Lakota Sioux warrior, Crazy Horse, is under construction in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Korczak Ziolkowski a sculptor, who also worked on Mount Rushmore, began the project in 1948. Ziolkowski was born on September 6, 1908, — thirty-one years to the day after Crazy Horse died. A Sioux chief asked Ziolkowski, if he would create a monument to honor Crazy Horse, and other Indian heroes. Ziolkowski designed a sculpture of Crazy Horse on horseback that, when it is completed, will be the largest statue in the world. The sculpture is being shaped from Thunderhead Mountain a six-hundred-foot granite rock. Tons of rock have been blasted, from the mountain. The sculptor died in 1982 but his widow, children, and grandchildren have carried on the work. There has been no government funding so, they have paid for the work entirely with donations and admission fees. By the middle of the twenty-first century the statue should be finished, and will depict the great Sioux hero pointing at the hills he loved.

13 Semicolons and Colons

Semicolons and colons send subtle messages to your reader about the relationship between the material that precedes and follows the punctuation mark.

Semicolons

13a Use a semicolon to join two closely related independent clauses

✵ In January and February, sunny days are rare and very short in northern countries; winter depression is common in the north.

An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a sentence.

13b Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses linked by a conjunctive adverb or transitional expression

Example 1:

Original sentence: The stunt pilot had to eject from the cockpit, nevertheless, he was not injured. In the above sentence, the comma after the word, cockpit is crossed out and replaced with a semicolon.

Revised sentence: The stunt pilot had to eject from the cockpit; nevertheless, he was not injured.

Example 2:

Original sentence: Mass transit is good for the environment for example, as many people can fit in a bus as in fifteen cars. In the above sentence, a semicolon is inserted after the word, environment.

Revised sentence: Mass transit is good for the environment; for example, as many people can fit in a bus as in fifteen cars.

A conjunctive adverb is a word (such as also, however, or still) that links two independent clauses.

13c Use semicolons to separate items in a series if commas are used within the items

Semicolons help prevent confusion in a sentence that contains a series of items with one or more commas within the items.

✵ Fairy tales inspire children by depicting magical events, which appeal to their imaginations; clever boys and girls, who encourage young readers’ problem-solving skills; evil creatures, who provide thrills; and good, heroic adults, who make the childhood world seem safer.

Also use a semicolon to separate a series of independent clauses that contain commas.

✵ He is stubborn, selfish, and conservative; she is stubborn, combative, and liberal; and no one is surprised that they do not get along.

See also 12b on when to use commas to separate items in a series.

13d Do not use a semicolon to introduce a list or to separate a phrase or dependent clause from the rest of the sentence

Example 1:

Original sentence: A growing number of companies employ prison inmates for certain jobs; selling magazines, conducting surveys, reserving airplane tickets, and taking telephone orders. In the above sentence, the semicolon after the word, jobs is crossed out and replaced with colon.

Revised sentence: A growing number of companies employ prison inmates for certain jobs: selling magazines, conducting surveys, reserving airplane tickets, and taking telephone orders.

Example 2:

Original sentence: On the other hand; taking risks can bring impressive results. In the above sentence, the semicolon after the word, hand is crossed out and replaced with comma.

Revised sentence: On the other hand, taking risks can bring impressive results.

Example 3:

Original sentence: I’ll always wonder; if things could have been different. In the above sentence, the semicolon after the word, wonder is crossed out.

Revised sentence: I’ll always wonder if things could have been different.

For more on introducing lists, see 13e.

EXERCISE 13.1

Correct any errors in the use of semicolons in the following sentences. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: Myths and stories about vampires have been around for centuries, however, Bram Stoker’s 1897 novel Dracula is probably the most famous fictional account of these monsters. In the above sentence, the comma after the word, centuries is crossed out and replaced with a semicolon.

Revised sentence: Myths and stories about vampires have been around for centuries; however, Bram Stoker’s 1897 novel Dracula is probably the most famous fictional account of these monsters.

1. In the years since Stoker’s novel, vampires have become a movie fixture; in America and throughout the world.

2. Actor Bela Lugosi played Count Dracula as more of a romantic figure than a monster in the 1931 film Dracula; this depiction provided the standard image of the vampire as a sexy fiend.

3. The vampire tale was adapted to the American movie western; for example, in Billy the Kid vs. Dracula in 1966.

4. The popular Blacula (1972); which recast the vampire as an African prince in 1970s Los Angeles; inspired a series of black-themed “blaxploitation” horror movies.

5. In the late 1990s, Buffy the Vampire Slayer was revived as a popular TV series; starring Sarah Michelle Gellar.

EXERCISE 13.2

Correct any errors in the use of semicolons in the following paragraph. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: The word placebo is Latin for “I will please,” placebos have long been used in medical experiments. In the above sentence, the comma after the word, please is crossed out and replaced with a semicolon.

Revised sentence: The word placebo is Latin for “I will please”; placebos have long been used in medical experiments.

In medicine, a placebo is a substance; often a sugar pill, that has no medicinal use. Placebos alone cannot cure any medical problem, nevertheless, many patients improve when taking them. Because patients who receive placebos do not know that the pills are useless, they think they are getting help for their condition; and they get better. This strange but true fact — recognized by doctors; pharmacists; and other professionals — is called the placebo effect. Chemically, a placebo does nothing, theoretically, the patient should not respond, but somehow this trick works on many people. The placebo effect is often seen in patients; but it is not widely understood.

Colons

You can use a colon (:) to introduce a list, an explanation, an example, or a further thought within a sentence. The information following the colon should clarify or offer specifics about the information that comes before it.

13e Use a colon to introduce a list or a series

When you use a colon to introduce a list, make sure the list is preceded by a complete sentence.

Example 1: The archaeologists uncovered several items (colon) pieces of pottery, seeds, animal bones, and household tools.

Example 2:

Original sentence: All students must be immunized against (colon) measles, mumps, and rubella.

Revised sentence: All students must be immunized against common childhood illnesses: measles, mumps, and rubella.

13f Use a colon to introduce an explanation, an example, or a summary

✵ In many ways Hollywood is very predictable: Action movies arrive in the summer, dramas in the fall.

✵ One tree is particularly famous for its spectacular autumn colors: the sugar maple.

✵ Disaster relief efforts began all over the country: Volunteers raised $40 million.

If the group of words following a colon is a complete sentence, the first word can begin with either a capital or a lowercase letter. Whichever option you choose, be consistent throughout your paper.

13g Use a colon to introduce a word or phrase that renames another noun

✵ A hushed group of tourists stared at the most famous statue in Florence: Michelangelo’s David.

13h Use a colon to introduce a lengthy or heavily punctuated quotation

A quotation that is more than one or two lines long or that contains two or more commas can be introduced by a colon.

✵ Without pausing for breath, the campaign manager intoned the introduction: “Ladies and gentlemen, today it is my very great privilege to introduce to you the person on whose behalf you have all worked so tirelessly and with such impressive results, the person who is the reason we are all here today — the next president of the United States.”

✵ The instructions were confusing: “After adjusting toggles A, B, and C, connect bracket A to post A, bracket B to post B, and bracket C to post C, securing with clamps A, B, and C, as illustrated in figure 1.”

13i Use a colon to separate hours and minutes, in salutations for business letters, between titles and subtitles, and in ratios

13j Use a colon only at the end of an independent clause

A colon should always follow an independent clause, which could stand on its own as a complete sentence. Do not use a colon between a verb and its object; between a preposition and its object; or before a list introduced by such words as for example, including, is, and such as.

Example 1: A medieval map is hard to read (colon) The top of the map points to the east, not the north.

The text below reads, “A medieval map is hard to read is an independent clause.”

Example 2:

Original sentence: Even a small garden can produce (colon) beans, squash, tomatoes, and corn.

Revised sentence: Even a small garden can produce beans, squash, tomatoes, and corn.

Example 3:

Original sentence: My cat had hidden a ball of twine under (colon) the sofa.

Revised sentence: My cat had hidden a ball of twine under the sofa.

Example 4:

Original sentence: Bird-watchers are thrilled to spy birds of prey such as (colon) peregrine falcons, red-tailed hawks, and owls.

Revised sentence: Bird-watchers are thrilled to spy birds of prey such as peregrine falcons, red-tailed hawks, and owls.

EXERCISE 13.3

Correct any errors in the use of colons in the following sentences. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: Young, impeccably dressed couples participated in the latest craze swing dancing.

Revised sentence: Young, impeccably dressed couples participated in the latest craze: swing dancing.

1. The ceremony is scheduled for precisely 10.00 a.m.

2. The proposed zoning change was defeated by a margin of 2/1.

3. On early rap records, listeners heard percussion from unusual sources such as: turntables, microphones, and synthesizers.

4. To find out whether a film is historically accurate, consult Past Imperfect: History According to the Movies.

5. He believes that the most American of all sports is: baseball.

14 Quotation Marks, Ellipses, and Brackets

Quotation marks, ellipses, and brackets are frequently used together. Quotation marks indicate that you are borrowing someone's exact words, and ellipses and brackets are used to indicate changes within a quotation.

Quotation Marks

A direct quotation gives a person’s exact words, either spoken or written, set off by quotation marks. Quotation marks are always used in pairs. The opening quotation mark (“) appears at the beginning of a word or quoted passage, and the closing mark (”) appears at the end. Quotation marks are also used with titles of short works and to mark words used as words.

14a Use quotation marks around direct statements from other speakers or writers

Be careful to include the exact words of the speaker or writer within the quotation marks.

Original sentence: Lincoln recalled that the United States was dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.

Revised sentence: Lincoln recalled that the United States was “dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.” In the above sentence the phrase, “dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal,” is within double quotes.

The text below reads, “Because dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal repeats Lincoln’s exact words, quotation marks are required.”

In dialogue, place quotation marks around each speaker’s words. Every time a different person speaks, begin a new paragraph.

✵ He said, “Sit down.”

✵ “No, thank you,” I replied.

For details on quoting from original sources using MLA or APA style, see Chapter 23.

14b Place commas and periods inside the quotation marks

Example 1:

Original sentence: “Play it, Sam”, Rick tells the piano player in Casablanca. In the above sentence the closing double quotation mark is after the word, Sam.

Revised sentence: “Play it, Sam,” Rick tells the piano player in Casablanca. In the above sentence the closing double quotation mark is after the comma.

Example 2:

Original sentence: Willie Sutton robbed banks because “that’s where the money is”. In the above sentence the closing double quotation mark is after the word, is.

Revised sentence: Willie Sutton robbed banks because “that’s where the money is.” In the above sentence the closing double quotation mark is after the period.

14c Place colons and semicolons outside the quotation marks

Example 1:

Original sentence: The marching band played “Seventy-Six Trombones:” the drum major’s favorite song. In the above sentence the closing double quotation mark is after the colon.

Revised sentence: The marching band played “Seventy-Six Trombones”: the drum major’s favorite song. In the above sentence the closing double quotation mark is after the word, Trombones.

Example 2:

Original sentence: A new national anthem should replace “The Star-Spangled Banner;” no one can sing that song. In the above sentence the closing double quotation mark is after the semicolon.

Revised sentence: A new national anthem should replace “The Star-Spangled Banner”; no one can sing that song. In the above sentence the closing double quotation mark is after the word, banner.

14d Place question marks and exclamation points according to the meaning of the sentence

If the quotation is a question or exclamation, place the question mark or exclamation point within the closing quotation mark. If the punctuation mark comes at the end of a sentence, no other end punctuation is needed.

Example 1:

Original sentence: “How does the bridge stand up”? the child wondered. In the above sentence the closing double quotation mark is after the word, up.

Revised sentence: “How does the bridge stand up?” the child wondered. In the above sentence the closing double quotation mark is after the questions mark.

Example 2:

Original sentence: Poe’s insane narrator confesses, “It is the beating of his hideous heart”! In the above sentence the closing double quotation mark is after the word, heart.

Revised sentence: Poe’s insane narrator confesses, “It is the beating of his hideous heart!” In the above sentence the closing double quotation mark is after the exclamation mark.

If the entire sentence, of which the quotation is part, is a question or exclamation, the question mark or exclamation point goes outside the closing quotation mark at the end of the sentence.

Original sentence: Was Scarlett O’Hara serious when she said, “Tomorrow is another day?” In the above sentence the closing double quotation mark is after the questions mark.

Revised sentence: Was Scarlett O’Hara serious when she said, “Tomorrow is another day”? In the above sentence the closing double quotation mark is after the word, day.

14e Use a comma to separate a short quotation from a signal phrase, such as he replied or she said

Example 1:

Original sentence: “Video games improve eye-hand coordination,” he replied.

Revised sentence: “Video games improve eye-hand coordination,” he replied.

Example 2:

Original sentence: “The homeless population”, she replied “grew steadily throughout the 1980s.”

Revised sentence: “The homeless population,” she replied, “grew steadily throughout the 1980s.”

14f Use single quotation marks (’ ’) to indicate a quotation or title within a quotation

✵ The mysterious caller repeatedly insists, “Play ’Misty’ for me.”

14g Place quotation marks around the titles of works within longer works

14h Do not use quotation marks to call attention to words or phrases

Original sentence: The manager who was originally in charge of the project ’jumped ship’ before the deadline. In the above sentence, the words “jumped ship” is within single quotes.

Revised sentence: The manager who was originally in charge of the project jumped ship before the deadline.

Quotation marks can be used to mark words used as words (as an acceptable alternative to italics).

✵ The word “receive” is often misspelled.

EXERCISE 14.1

Correct any errors in the use of quotation marks in the following sentences. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: The hotel has an excellent restaurant specializing in “fresh“ fish.

Revised sentence: The hotel has an excellent restaurant specializing in fresh fish.

1. Her essay was entitled ““To Be or Not to Be”: Shakespeare and Existentialism.”

2. Why did the professor assign “To an Athlete Dying Young?”

3. A movie line many teenagers imitated was “Hasta la vista, baby”.

4. After September 11, 2001, President Bush said he was going to “fight terror”.

5. “I have a dream,” Martin Luther King Jr. told the civil rights marchers.

Ellipses and Brackets

14i Use an ellipsis ( . . . ) to indicate an omission

An ellipsis (. . .) is written as three equally spaced periods. Use an ellipsis to shorten a quotation so that it includes just the parts you want or need to quote.

When you shorten a quotation, be careful not to change the meaning of the original passage. Do not omit any parts that will alter or misrepresent the writer’s intended meaning.

When you omit the last part of a quoted sentence, add a period, for a total of four dots (the ellipsis plus a period).

An ellipsis is not needed to indicate that the quoted passage continues after the last sentence you quote ends.

Original sentence: He is modest about his contributions to the abolitionist cause: “I could do but little; but what I could, I did with a joyful heart (ellipsis)” (Douglass 54).

Revised sentence: He is modest about his contributions to the abolitionist cause: “I could do but little; but what I could, I did with a joyful heart” (Douglass 54).

No ellipsis is needed at the beginning of a quotation, even though material in the original comes before it.

Note: The first word of a quoted sentence should be capitalized. If you change from a lowercase to a capital letter, enclose the letter in brackets (see Section 14j).

14j Use brackets to indicate changes in quotations and to enclose words already in parentheses

Brackets ([ ]) are used within quotations and within parentheses.

Use brackets to add information or indicate changes you have made to a quotation

✵ Whitman’s preface argued, “Here [the United States] is not merely a nation but a teeming nation of nations.”

o The explanation tells where here is.

✵ “Along came a spider and sat down beside [Miss Muffett],” who apparently suffered from a phobia.

o The bracketed name replaces her in the original.

Use brackets to enclose the word sic when signaling an error in original quoted material.

✵ The incumbent’s letter to the editor announced, “My opponant’s [sic] claims regarding my record are simply not true.”

The Latin word sic lets your readers know that the misspelled word or other error in the quoted material is the original author’s error, not yours.

Use brackets to enclose parenthetical material in a group of words already enclosed in parentheses

✵ The demonstrators (including members of the National Rifle Association [NRA]) crowded around the candidate.

EXERCISE 14.2

Shorten each of the following quotations by omitting the underlined portion and adding an ellipsis and brackets where appropriate.

Original sentence: “Some people who call themselves vegetarians still eat less cuddly creatures such as chicken and fish.”

Revised sentence: “Some people who call themselves vegetarians still eat (ellipsis) chicken and fish.”

1. “The structure of DNA, as Watson and Crick discovered, is a double helix.”

2. “Although African Americans had won Academy Awards before, Halle Berry was the first African American woman to win the Academy Award for Best Actress.”

3. “Cole Porter cultivated a suave, sophisticated urban persona even though he came from a small town in Indiana.”

4. “Many Americans do not realize that people of all classes receive financial help from the government.”

5. “Although saltwater aquariums are beautiful, they are difficult and expensive to maintain.”

15 Apostrophes

An apostrophe (’) has three functions: to show ownership or possession, to indicate omitted letters in contractions, and to form some plurals.

15a Use an apostrophe to indicate possession or ownership

Add -’s to make a singular noun possessive, including nouns that end with s or the sound of s and indefinite pronouns (anyone, nobody).

✵ The fox’s prey led it across the field.

✵ Whether she can win the nomination is anybody’s guess.

An indefinite pronoun does not refer to a specific person, place, or object. It refers to people, places, or things in general (anywhere, everyone, everything).

Note that the possessive forms of personal pronouns do not take apostrophes: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, its.

Original sentence: Each bee has it’s function in the hive.

Revised sentence: Each bee has its function in the hive.

The possessive form of who is whose (not who’s).

✵ Marie Curie, whose work in chemistry made history, discovered radium.

Add an apostrophe to a plural noun to make it possessive, or add -’s if the plural noun does not end in s.

✵ Both farms’ crops were lost in the flood.

✵ Our children’s children will reap the benefits of our efforts to preserve the environment today.

To show individual possession by two or more people or groups, add an apostrophe or -’s to each noun.

✵ Sam is equipment manager for both the boys’ and the girls’ basketball teams.

o Sam works for two different teams.

To show joint possession by two people or groups, add an apostrophe or -’s to the last noun.

✵ The coaches and players’ dream came true at the end of the season.

Add -’s to the last word of a compound noun to show possession.

✵ My father-in-law’s boat needs a new engine.

✵ We were ushered into the chairman of the department’s office.

15b Use an apostrophe to indicate the omitted letter or letters in a contraction

✵ I’ve [I have] seen the answers.

✵ Jason didn’t [did not] arrive last night.

15c Use an apostrophe to form the plural of a number, letter, symbol, abbreviation, or word treated as a word

✵ There are three 5’s on the license plate.

✵ She spells her name with two C’s.

✵ The ?’s stand for unknown quantities.

✵ Using two etc.’s is unnecessary.

✵ Replace all can’s in the contract with cannot’s.

In the sentences above, note that numbers, letters, and words used as themselves are in italics. The -s ending should not be italicized, however.

When referring to the years in a decade, no apostrophe is used.

✵ The fashions of the 1970s returned in the 1990s.

Apostrophes are used, however, to signal the omission of the numerals that indicate the century.

15d Avoid using apostrophes to form plurals and to form possessives for personal pronouns

Example 1:

Original sentence: The trapper’s came to town to trade.

Revised sentence: The trappers came to town to trade.

Example 2:

Original sentence: She paid for my lunch as well as her’s.

Revised sentence: She paid for my lunch as well as hers.

EXERCISE 15.1

Correct the errors in the use of apostrophes in the following sentences. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: As newer forms of communication like Twitter, Facebook, and text messaging take over our lives, we should ask whether were becoming more connected or less connected with other people.

Revised sentence: As newer forms of communication like Twitter, Facebook, and text messaging take over our lives, we should ask whether we’re becoming more connected or less connected with other people.

1. Our’s is a society almost too willing to share.

2. We probably know more about the day-to-day lives of other’s than ever before, as the details of our many friend’s days are recorded in online status report’s.

3. Its unclear, however, whether anyone is truly benefiting from all this sharing of private information, even as the various social networking sites privacy settings reveal more and more about user’s.

4. Todays parents’ can find out about their sons and daughters personal live’s online, but they have less face-to-face contact with their children.

5. Of course, theyll have to figure out the meaning of all the LOLs’, BTWs, and other shorthand slang in their kids online and text messages.

16 Parentheses and Dashes

Parentheses — ( ) — are used to separate nonessential information from the rest of a sentence or paragraph. A dash (—), or a pair of dashes, is (are) used to separate parts of a sentence. A dash suggests a stronger separation than a comma, colon, or semicolon does.

Parentheses

16a Use parentheses to add words, phrases, or sentences that expand on, clarify, or explain material that follows

Words, phrases, or sentences that expand on, clarify, or explain material that precedes or follows should be set off with parentheses.

✵ The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) is responsible for developing water-pollution standards.

✵ The application fee for the four-day workshop (a total of $500, including the registration fee) is due Friday.

Be sure to use parentheses sparingly; they can clutter your writing.

16b Use parentheses to insert dates or abbreviations

✵ Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815—1902) helped organize the first American women’s rights convention.

✵ Guidelines for documenting research papers in the humanities are published by the Modern Language Association (MLA).

16c Check the placement of other punctuation used with parentheses

Parenthetical information that appears at the end of a sentence should be inserted before the period that ends the sentence.

✵ Ballroom dancing has become popular in the United States (probably because of the success of Dancing with the Stars).

When parenthetical information appears after a word that would be followed by a comma, the comma is always placed after the closing parenthesis.

✵ He called when his plane landed (or so he said), but no one answered.

When a complete sentence appears within parentheses, punctuate the sentence as you would normally.

✵ Timber companies propose various uses for national forests. (Public land can be leased for commercial purposes.)

Exception: If the material within the parentheses is a question, it should end with a question mark.

✵ A few innocent-looking plants (have you heard of the Venus flytrap?) capture and eat insects and animals.

Dashes

16d Use a dash or dashes to emphasize a sudden shift or break in thought or mood

✵ Computers have given us instant communication — and electronic junk mail.

16e Use a dash or dashes to introduce an explanation, an example, or items in a series

✵ The tattoo artist had completed a large body of work—Fred’s!

✵ The tattoo artist had seen everything — a full-size bear claw on a back, bleeding heart on a bicep, even an Irish cross on the tip of a nose.

When the added thought appears in mid-sentence, use two dashes to set it off.

✵ The tattoo artist — who would prefer to remain nameless — thinks tattoos are a waste of money.

16f Use dashes sparingly

Dashes are emphatic. Do not overuse them, or they will lose their effectiveness. Also be careful not to use a dash as a substitute for a conjunction or transition.

A conjunction is a word or words used to connect clauses, phrases, or individual words.

Original sentence: Einstein’s job in Switzerland was dull (dash) it offered him plenty of time to think (dash) he came up with the theory of relativity.

Revised sentence: Einstein’s job in Switzerland was dull, but it offered him plenty of time to think; while working there he came up with the theory of relativity.

EXERCISE 16.1

Correct the errors in the use of parentheses or dashes in the following sentences. Some sentences may be correct as written.

Original sentence: Typhoid Mary would probably not have infected so many victims if she had stopped working (she was a cook.) In the above sentence, the period after the word “cook” is within the parenthesis.

Revised sentence: Typhoid Mary would probably not have infected so many victims if she had stopped working (she was a cook). In the above sentence, the period after the parenthesis.

1. In the 1960s, frozen foods — icy blocks of corn, peas, and string beans — were popular — and convenient — alternatives to fresh produce.

2. The Committee for Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP) tests claims of supernatural abilities.

3. Malcolm X 1925—1965 was an American political figure assassinated in the 1960s.

4. The invention of anesthesia made possible many advances in medicine (including lengthy surgery.)

5. In the 1990s, people in Great Britain were alerted to a new danger, mad cow disease.

Manage Mechanics and Spelling

17 Capitalization

Capitalize the first word of a sentence, proper nouns, and the pronoun I.

A proper noun names a particular person, place, thing, or group.

17a Capitalize the first word in a sentence and in a direct quotation

Capitalize the first word in a direct quotation unless it is incorporated into your own sentence or it continues an earlier quotation.

Example 1:

Original sentence: The union representative said, “that meeting did not take place.” In the above sentence, the letter “t” of the word “that” is in lowercase.

Revised sentence: The union representative said, “That meeting did not take place.” In the above sentence, the letter “T” of the word “that” is in uppercase.

Example 2:

Original sentence: Sam Verdon complained that “No one takes college athletes seriously.” In the above sentence, the letter “N” of the word “No” is in uppercase.

Revised sentence: Sam Verdon complained that “no one takes college athletes seriously.” In the above sentence, the letter “n” of the word “no” is in uppercase.

Example 3:

Original sentence: “I prefer not to interpret my paintings,” replied the famous watercolorist, “Because they should speak for themselves.” In the above sentence, the letter “B” of the word “Because” is in uppercase.

Revised sentence: “I prefer not to interpret my paintings,” replied the famous watercolorist, “because they should speak for themselves.” In the above sentence, the letter “b” of the word “because” is in lowercase.

17b Capitalize proper nouns, including the names of specific people, places, things, and groups

17c Do not capitalize common nouns

17d Capitalize the titles of literary and other works, such as books, articles, poems, plays, songs, films, and paintings

Capitalize the first and last words of the title, the first word following a colon, and all other words except articles, coordinating conjunctions, and prepositions.

Articles are the words a, an, and the.

Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet) connect sentence elements that are of equal importance.

Prepositions (such as before, on, and to) are used before a noun or pronoun to indicate time, place, space, direction, position, or some other relationship.

17e Capitalize a personal title only when it directly precedes a person’s name

✵ Vice President Maria Washington briefed the stockholders.

✵ Maria Washington was hired from a rival company to be the new vice president.

It is acceptable to capitalize the titles of certain high government officials regardless of whether they precede a name: the President of the United States.

EXERCISE 17.1

Correct the capitalization errors in the following paragraph.

During world war II, the governments of twenty-six countries pledged their willingness to continue fighting on behalf of the Allies. United States president Franklin Roosevelt came up with a name for the group: the united nations. The “Declaration By United Nations” promised the support of those twenty-six governments for the war effort. The Nations signed this document on New Year’s day of 1942. By 1945, the number of countries involved in the united nations had grown to fifty-one. From April through June of that year, fifty Representatives attended the united nations Conference on International Organization in San Francisco. There, the Nations debated the contents of a charter. Although the War was nearing an end, the governments foresaw a need to continue international cooperation. The charter was ratified on October 24, 1945, by China, France, The Soviet Union, The United Kingdom, The United States, and a majority of the other Nations. Every year since then, October 24 has been known as united nations day.

18 Numbers

As a general rule, use numbers according to the rules of your field of study. Be sure to represent numbers as numerals or as words consistently.

18a Spell out numbers that begin sentences

18b Spell out numbers that can be written in one or two words

Use numerals for numbers that cannot be spelled out in one or two words.

Use numerals for all numbers in a sentence if one of the numbers needs to be written in numerals.

When two numbers appear in succession, spell out one and use numerals for the other.

18c Use numerals according to convention

EXERCISE 18.1

Correct the errors in the use of numbers in the following sentences. Some sentences may be correct as written.

1. 77% of those responding to the poll favored increased taxes on cigarettes.

2. The estimated cost was too low by eighty-seven dollars and fourteen cents.

3. Each window is composed of 100s of small pieces of colored glass.

4. All traffic stopped as a 90-car train went slowly past.

5. February twenty-two is George Washington’s birthday, but Presidents’ Day is always celebrated on a Monday.

19 Italics

Italic or slanted type is used for emphasizing particular words or phrases. It is also used to set off titles of longer works or works that contain other works (such as anthologies, Web sites, and magazines), names of vehicles, non-English words, and words deserving special emphasis. Most word-processing programs provide italic type on the font or format tabs.

19a Italicize titles of works published separately

The titles of shorter works, such as the titles of articles, short stories, and songs, should be enclosed in quotation marks.

For more about quotation marks with titles, see 14g.

19b Italicize the names of ships, trains, aircraft, and spacecraft

19c Italicize non-English words not in everyday use

Words from other languages should be italicized unless they have become a part of the English language, such as “chic” or “burrito.” If you are unsure, check an English dictionary. If the word is not listed, it should be italicized.

✵ Our instructor lectured on the technique of Verstehen.

✵ Tacos are now as much a part of American cuisine as pizza.

19d Italicize numbers, letters, words, or phrases called out for special emphasis

Use italics for numbers, letters, or words used as terms.

✵ Every bottle has 33 on the label.

✵ Hester Prynne is forced to wear a scarlet A.

✵ Today, ain’t is listed in most dictionaries.

Italicize a word or phrase that is being defined or emphasized.

✵ Alliteration — the same sounds repeated at the beginning of each word in a group — can be an effective literary device.

Use italics for emphasis sparingly. When you italicize too many words in a sentence or paragraph, the emphasis is lost.

EXERCISE 19.1

Correct the errors in the use of italics in the following sentences. Some sentences may be correct as written.

✵ Oedipus, written by Sophocles in the fifth century BC, is possibly the most famous play of the classical period.

1. The exchange student greeted everyone with a hearty “Kon’nichiwa!”

2. His professor insisted that Soap Opera Digest was not an acceptable research source.

3. Cartoons like The Simpsons have become surprisingly popular with adult audiences.

4. The first European settlers at Plymouth arrived on the Mayflower.

5. His book is discussed in depth in the article Africa: The Hidden History.

20 Hyphens

A hyphen (-) is used to join compound words, to connect parts of words, and to split words at the end of typewritten lines of text.

20a Use a hyphen to join words that function as a unit

Some compound nouns and verbs are spelled as one word (download), some are spelled as two words (washing machine), and some are spelled using hyphens (foul-up). Check a dictionary when you are unsure; if you do not find the compound listed in your dictionary, spell it as two words.

Use a hyphen to join words that together modify a noun.

✵ An icy-fingered hand tapped her shoulder.

However, when the first word of the compound ends in -ly or when the compound adjective follows the noun it modifies, no hyphen is used.

✵ The guard found a clumsily hidden duplicate key.

✵ Her voice was well trained.

20b Use a hyphen with some prefixes (all-, ex-, great-, self-) and suffixes (-elect)

✵ Most Americans’ parents, grandparents, or great-grandparents came from another country.

✵ The governor-elect made a stirring victory speech.

Use a hyphen for clarity to prevent confusion with certain combinations of prefixes and base words.

20c Use a hyphen when spelling out fractions and the numbers twenty-one to ninety-nine, in word-number combinations, and to indicate inclusive numbers

✵ The 675-yard path winds through a landscaped garden.

✵ Pages 99—102 cover the military campaigns.

20d Use a hyphen between syllables to split a word at the end of a typewritten or handwritten line

Although most word-processing programs automatically break the line before a long word and move the word to the next line, in typewritten or handwritten text, you should use a hyphen to divide any words that fall at the end of a line. Divide words between syllables; never break a one-syllable word. Divide a compound word between its parts. Words can also be divided between a prefix and root or between a root and suffix. Check your dictionary if you are uncertain about where to break a word.

Viking invaders failed to conquer Ireland because the country was governed by a number of petty kings rather than by a central authority that could be effectively overthrown; however, by the tenth century this situation began to change.

EXERCISE 20.1

Correct the errors in the use of hyphens in the following sentences. If you are not sure about a word, check your dictionary. Some sentences may be correct as written.

1. Adolescents today who are unhappy with their looks can turn to the increasingly-popular option of plastic surgery.

2. For many selfconscious teens and young adults, surgery seems to be the perfect solution.

3. Until recently, very few sixteen year olds considered making permanent surgical changes.

4. But as more adults pay for nose-jobs and tummy tucks, more teens are expressing interest.

5. Are images of people with apparently perfect bodies and faces unduly influencing less-than-perfect young Americans?

21 Spelling

Misspelled words are among the most common errors for many student writers. Be sure to pay attention to spelling as you edit and proofread your papers, and keep a dictionary close at hand. Misspellings can make your paper appear carelessly written. Use the tips in the box below to help improve your spelling.

Tips for Improving Your Spelling

✵ Purchase a collegiate dictionary and take the time to look up the correct spellings of unfamiliar words.

✵ Use your word processor’s spell-checker function. Be sure to take advantage of the spell-checker as you edit and proofread your drafts. However, keep in mind that this function will not catch all spelling errors; for example, it cannot detect the incorrect use of it’s versus its or of homonyms such as there versus their and weather versus whether.

✵ Proofread your drafts for spelling errors. To avoid being distracted by the flow of ideas in your essays, proofread them backward, from the last word to the first, looking only for misspellings. For words that sound alike but have different spellings (to/too/two, their/there), stop to check their use in the sentence and determine whether you have used the correct word.

✵ Keep a list of words you commonly misspell. The best way to learn tricky words is to make a list of the words that give you trouble and refer to it often, especially as you proofread. Use your dictionary to locate the correct spelling and pronunciation of each word in the list. Review your list of words periodically, and practice pronouncing and writing the words until you master their spellings.

✵ Develop a spelling awareness. As you read and write, pay attention to words and how they are spelled. When you encounter a new word, pronounce it slowly and carefully while taking note of its spelling. Pay particular attention to words with similar-sounding endings (-able/-ible, -cede/-sede), doubled letters (embarrassment, personnel), several similar-sounding vowels (cemetery), words that seem to be missing necessary letters (knowledge, privilege), words from the same root but with different spellings (heir, heredity), and words with silent letters (aisle, pneumonia).