Successful college writing, Eighth edition - Kathleen T. McWhorter 2020

Thinking, reading, and writing critically
An introduction to reading, writing, and learning in college

In this chapter you will learn to

✵ determine whether authors make reasonable inferences and use appropriate evidence

✵ analyze the author’s tone, assumptions, generalizations, and omissions

✵ use critical thinking skills as you write

✵ interpret and think critically about photographs and graphics

WRITING QUICK START

ANALYZE

Suppose your sociology instructor shows you this photo of a pile of old mobile phones in a scrap heap in Ghana and asks you to write an analysis of what you see and what you think it means. Now imagine that your computer science instructor asks you to write an analysis of the same photograph.

WRITE

Draft two paragraphs describing the photograph and analyzing its significance from these two different perspectives. How do your two paragraphs differ in word choice, content, and point of view?

CONNECT

As you analyzed and wrote about the photo, you not only had to question, evaluate, and respond critically, but you also chose words and ideas that helped to express your point of view in a way that was appropriate to your audience. In this chapter you will learn strategies for thinking, reading, and writing critically that you can apply to reading essays, newspaper and magazine articles, textbook selections, works of literature, and visuals, including photographs and graphics, and that you can apply to essays and other college assignments you write.

Analyzing What You Read

We live in a world of overload, surrounded by news, opinions, advertisements, and other kinds of information everywhere we look (or listen). Sometimes the information we encounter presents ideas fully and fairly. More often, writers and speakers present only their own views on a topic, without fully exploring the range of positions. And sometimes writers and speakers present their positions in such a way as to make their viewpoint sound like the only logical option. So it is important to assess carefully the ideas and information we encounter. And since writers may not always be aware when unfair bias creeps in, it is also important to assess carefully the way you present your own ideas, making sure that you have presented them clearly and fairly. As you read and respond to academic writing in a variety of disciplines, you will be called upon to interpret, assess, and integrate ideas from a variety of sources. Your instructors will expect you to go beyond understanding a text to analyze it, evaluate it, and think critically about it. This chapter will help you extend the skills you practiced in Chapter 2 to become sophisticated readers and writers.

Analyze the Author’s Ideas

To analyze an essay, begin by examining the author’s ideas closely and critically. This involves knowing what the author says, and, more important, it involves making inferences about what the author means. It also involves examining the supporting evidence an author offers, distinguishing between fact and opinion, and identifying bias.

Make Reasonable Inferences

An inference is a reasonable guess based on the available facts and information, including content directly provided in the reading. Inferences are logical connections between what the writer states directly and what he or she implies. Consider the following situation:

You have been attending your history class all semester; you participate in class and your interest in history is evident. Your scores on three exams were 95, 97, and 99, out of 100. You wrote one paper for the class and got an A on it. It is the end of the semester, your instructor has just announced the date of the final exam, and she asks you to stop and talk to her after class. During the class, the instructor also mentions some summer internships that she recently learned about.

In this situation, you are confident that you are passing the course. So what might she want to talk to you about? One reasonable inference is that it has something to do with the final exam, since it was just announced. Another possible inference is that she may want to encourage you to apply for one of the internships she mentioned.

Here are some guidelines for making reasonable inferences:

1. Understand the author’s purpose and literal meanings. Before you can make reasonable inferences, you need a clear understanding of the author’s purpose and the reading’s thesis statement, main ideas, and supporting details.

2. Pay attention to details. Sometimes details offer a hint regarding what the writer has implied or left unsaid. When you notice a striking or unusual detail, ask yourself: Why is this detail included? For example, read the following passage:

Maria attends college, has a full-time job, takes care of her two children, cooks dinner for her family every night, and pays taxes. She doesn’t look like an illegal immigrant, but this is how the U.S. government classifies her.

What is the writer’s reason for including the detail about Maria’s immigration status? Perhaps the writer is implying that undocumented workers are just like everyone else: They go to school, work, and have families. You might also reasonably infer that the writer disagrees with or questions this classification.

3. Consider the facts. Consider the complete set of facts provided in the reading. What is the writer trying to suggest with these facts? What conclusions do the complete set of facts support? Suppose a writer presents the following facts:

Dr. Tannenbaum is an old-school doctor. His staff greets you by name and offers you a cup of coffee when you arrive for your appointment. A receptionist answers the phone and returns all calls promptly. Dr. Tannenbaum talks to you as if you’re a human being, not just a medical chart, and he’ll make house calls if you live alone and have no transportation to his office.

From these sentences, the conclusion is clear: The writer considers Dr. Tannenbaum an excellent doctor who treats his patients with respect.

4. Examine word choices. A writer’s choice of words often conveys his or her feelings toward the topic. Look for words that are heavy with connotations (or associations) and ask yourself why the writer chose these words. For example, in the paragraph about Dr. Tannenbaum, the author uses the adjective old-school to imply a traditional doctor who cares about his patients. Readers can sense that the writer intends to contrast “old-school doctors” with doctors who use “new-fangled” approaches, of which the author likely disapproves.

5. Support your inference with specific evidence. Valid inferences are based on fact, context, and personal experiences. Be sure you have ample evidence to back up any inference you make. It would be incorrect to infer that Dr. Tannenbaum is highly skilled at diagnosing rare illnesses, for example, based on the information presented.

EXERCISE 3.1

MAKING REASONABLE INFERENCES

Read the following excerpt from “American Jerk” in Chapter 2 and answer the questions that follow.

Pick your poison: reality television, slasher movies, video games, online porn, cell phones, automated answering systems, giant assault vehicles for trips to the grocery store, car stereos played at volumes easily heard on Jupiter, web-powered copyright infringement, people who will not shut their inane traps in movie theaters, and, lord help us, now even people who won’t shut their inane traps during live theater.

We’re all talking to someone all the time, but it’s ever more rarely to the people we are actually with. Our cell phones blare ringtones that no one else wants to hear. We love to watch TV shows about the stunningly predictable results of hand-feeding a grizzly bear or lighting a stick of dynamite with a cigarette. We also love shows where people lie to others for money and programs where snarky, slightly talented folks say vicious things to hopeful, and usually more talented, contestants.

1. What reasonable inferences can you make about the author’s opinion of the typical American? Provide three adjectives that the author would use to describe Americans.

2. Which specific words or phrases in the selection provide hints regarding the author’s attitude toward “American jerks”?

3. What details are particularly revealing about Americans’ behavior?

HOW READERS WRITE

IMPLIED MEANINGS

For more about connotation versus denotation, see “Consider Denotation versus Connotation” later in this chapter.

Assess the Evidence

In general, the most reliable information is based on solid evidence. When reading or writing, carefully assess the evidence provided:

✵ Is it reliable?

✵ Does the evidence support the writer’s assertions?

✵ Has enough evidence been provided to make a strong case?

The following list of pros and cons will help you determine the reliability of some of the most common types of evidence.

For more about analyzing data in graphics, see “Analyze Graphics” later in this chapter.

HOW READERS WRITE

EVIDENCE

EXERCISE 3.2

EVALUATING STATEMENTS

Consider each of the following statements and the context in which it is made. List what types of information are missing that would help you weigh the evidence and evaluate the claim being made. What further types of evidence would you need to accept or reject the statement?

1. On the label of a bag of cookies: “CONTAINS 45% LESS FAT and 0 grams of TRANS FAT!”

2. In a printed campaign flyer for mayoral candidate Mary Johnson: “My opponent, Joe Smith, has been accused of serious conflicts of interest in the awarding of city contracts during his term as mayor.”

3. In large print on the cover of a book you see online: “’This novel is a … wild and exciting … ride through the rough-and-tumble days of the Gold Rush … full of … adventure and excitement…. Memorable.’ — New York Times”

Distinguish Fact from Opinion

In order to determine whether an opinion has been adequately supported by facts, first you must be able to distinguish facts from opinions. The chart below will help.

When writers want to limit the extent of a claim, they often use qualifying words and phrases. For example, an expert on government debt may write, “It seems likely that Social Security payments will decline for future generations of Americans.” Using such words and phrases limits the writer’s responsibility for providing solid evidence to support the claim and allows other viewpoints to be acceptable.

HOW READERS WRITE

FACT AND OPINION IN ACADEMIC WRITING

EXERCISE 3.3

DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN FACTS AND OPINIONS

Label each of the following statements as fact (F) or opinion (O):

1. The best symphonies are shorter than twenty minutes.

2. About half the population of Uruguay lives in Montevideo.

3. More women earned doctoral degrees in engineering in 2020 than in 2000.

4. Private companies should not be allowed to operate concessions inside our national parks.

5. The mountains of northern Idaho contain the most scenic landscapes in the country.

EXERCISE 3.4

WRITING FACTS AND OPINIONS

For two of the following topics, write one statement of fact and one statement of opinion:

1. voter turnout rates in presidential elections

2. alternative energy solutions

3. the Super Bowl

Detect Disinformation

Also known as fake news, disinformation is false information that is deliberately presented to mislead listeners and readers. Often, it is written plausibly, appeals to readers’ preconceived notions, and is damaging to an organization, person, or product. Disinformation may be written by overzealous promoters of political or ideological positions; those seeking power, authority, or political gain; or those out to make a quick buck (or all three). Occasionally, the term fake news is used to mislead by those who wish to discredit an unfavorable report.

Most often, disinformation is spread through Web sites and social media. Influencers — people and organizations with thousands of real (or fake) followers — may share and reshare it (wittingly or not). Innocent readers may also share it with friends and family.

Creators of fake news use a variety of techniques to get unsuspecting readers to accept disinformation:

✵ They use misleading headlines, visuals, or graphics to hoodwink readers.

✵ They create fake sites with a similar design and URL to that of a legitimate site.

✵ They use real people or legitimate sources without their knowledge or approval.

✵ They edit, revise, or rewrite content (without permission) from legitimate sources to suit the writer’s purpose.

✵ They take quotations or content out of context to create a deceptive impression.

For example, in January 2017, BuzzFeed reported on a site that used photos of physicist Steven Hawking, along with an “interview” in a synthesized voice similar to that used by Hawking, to promote a financial trading site in which unsuspecting users could lose thousands of dollars instantly. The fake news story appeared on a site that used CNN’s logo and a similar URL (CNN’s URL is CNN.com; the fake news site used CNN-trading.com). The headline on the site promised “A Computer Code Unlike Any Other” and included the byline of a nonexistent reporter. The fabricators even created a fake Facebook page and a fake news article for the fake reporter they created. (To read more about the deception, visit www.buzzfeed.com/jamesball/fake-news-site-uses-professor-stephen-hawking-to-sell-get-ri.)

Disinformation can be spread verbally, but it can also be spread visually, using photographs and videos. For example, a visual can be doctored or fabricated: A person’s face can be superimposed on another person’s body, photographs and videos can be cropped, the rate of speech can be changed, or new video or photographic details can be added. Or the original material can be edited: A photograph of a person can be cut and pasted to appear in any location the fabricator chooses, videos can be spliced to combine pieces from two videos as if they were from a single event, brief portions of a video can be removed from a full video to misrepresent the speaker’s message, or a portion of a speech can be omitted to alter what the speaker actually said.

Strategies for Identifying Disinformation

Disinformation is often deliberately disguised as legitimate information. Use the following strategies, in addition to those provided for evaluating a source’s reliability in Chapter 21, to detect untrustworthy information:

✵ Scrutinize the domain, URL, and Web site format. Untrustworthy sites may use a URL that differs only in domain name (.com.co rather than .com, for example). For a time, the fake site ABCnew.com.co, for example, was sucking in readers trying to get to the legitimate ABCnews.com Web site. Or they may take advantage of typosquatting, buying a common misspelling of a popular Web site’s URL (yuuotube.com) to snag viewers.

✵ Verify facts and be suspicious of facts published in only one source. Most reliable information is published in a variety of sources. Google a questionable fact to see if it appears in several other sources that do not refer to the source you are using, or check facts using nonpartisan fact-checking sources like Factcheck.org or Snopes.com.

✵ Check the “About Us” section. Reputable Web sites present information about their organization, including their mission, leadership, ethics, and contact information. Be suspicious if the site lacks an “About Us” section or if that section is vague; doesn’t name key figures in the organization; or uses reactionary, self-congratulatory, or melodramatic language.

✵ Be alert for attention-grabbing headlines. Known as clickbait, headlines like “5 Things Politicians/Doctors/Lawyers Don’t Want You to Know — Number 3 Will Blow Your Mind” or “You Can Lose 20 Lbs in Just 4 Weeks by Eating This” entice you to click on them to continue reading. They often exaggerate or misrepresent the content presented.

✵ Be skeptical of unnamed sources, researchers, surveys, or polls. Credible sources identify their sources so you can verify the information presented and locate further data.

✵ Evaluate images. Visuals that accompany print content should clearly and accurately illustrate or supplement the print information. Writers of disinformation often do not create their own images; instead they “borrow” (steal) them from other sites. Check their legitimacy by clicking on the image and searching Google for it.

EXERCISE 3.5

IDENTIFYING DISINFORMATION

Below is a “news” story originally found online. Read the story and consider the questions in the margins. Then write a paragraph or two answering the following questions:

1. What techniques do the authors of this site use to convince readers the site is legitimate?

2. What do the authors do to make this article seem exciting and sensational?

3. How would you go about confirming a story like this?

"The title of the article reads, “Dead Body of Homeless Man Turns Out To Be The Legendary Elvis Presley.” The screenshot of the web page titled, “Dead Body of Homeless Man Turns Out To Be The Legendary Elvis Presley” and the corresponding annotation is “1. Who is the author of this article?” Below the title, a picture of cops with dead body and a screenshot of newspaper article are given, and the corresponding annotation reads, “2. Why is this page of The Sun inserted in the photograph?” Below the picture, several social media icons like Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and Email are given and the corresponding annotation reads, “3. What is the purpose of this statement? What action or behavior does it encourage? The article below the icons reads, SAN DIEGO, California - A homeless man said to be around 80 years old was found deceased under a tree in San Diego, California. Nobody exactly knew the man's identity, but friends and people that frequent the area referred to him as Jessie. Investigators preformed a D N A test in the nationwide D N A database, and the results have shocked the nation. ""Jessie Doe's' DNA results matched that of Elvis Aaron Presley, who was thought to have died in 1977. The corresponding annotation to it reads, “4. What additional details about the location would be helpful?” Lab technician Robert Brensdale said he and his lab assistant, Madeline Hedgespeth, laughed when the name popped up. “We thought somebody, somewhere, somehow in the system pulled the greatest and most elaborate prank on us ever, we both laughed with hysteria for about an hour,” Brensdale told Jerry Hardin of the Hollywood Word, a new entertainment publication based out of Los Angeles. The annotation corresponding to it reads, “5. How likely is it that a lab technician would be quoted? Does the quotation seem realistic? Why or why not?” Brensdale and Hedgespeth then went to their superior with laughter, as if he were the one behind this ""prank"". They were told to simmer down and stay quiet that this was no laughing matter. From there, the results sent up the ladder to the FBI and CIA. The three annotation corresponding to it are “6. Is this an authentic publication?, 7. By what process was this referred to the FBI? Why would the CIA be involved?, 8. After reading this paragraph, what would you say is the authors’ attitude toward the FBI? Why?” Now, weeks later, FBI spokesperson Philip Hunter has revealed that the deceased man's body was actually the body of Elvis Presley, who had been in the witness protection program since 1977. The FBI has released this statement: “Mr. Presley was placed in the program under a voluntary basis, but he was not a witness to any crime. Upon meeting President Nixon, the two become great friends, and Mr. Presley wanted out of his life, he wanted to be an unknown, so President Nixon made this possible. Yes, it is official - Elvis Presley was really alive all that time, and only a handful of people knew it most of which are no longer with us.” The annotation corresponding to it reads, “9. How, when, and where was this statement released?, 10. Could President Nixon have “made this possible” in 1977 ? When was President Nixon in office?” His body will officially be laid to rest at his original burial site in the Meditation Garden at Graceland mansion at 3764 Elvis Presley Boulevard in Memphis, Tennessee. The date has not yet been announced."

Analyze the Author’s Language

Authors often convey their message through the language they use, choosing words to create impressions, express feelings, even shape the readers’ attitudes and feelings toward the topic. When analyzing language, be sure to consider denotative versus connotative meanings, figurative language, and euphemisms and doublespeak, as well as the writer’s overall tone.

Consider Denotation versus Connotation

A denotation is the literal meaning of a word. For example, the denotation of the word talking is “expressing ideas using speech.” A connotation is the set of additional meanings or associations that a word has taken on. Often a word’s connotation has a much stronger effect on readers or listeners than its denotation does. The manner in which a politician talks to his or her audience might be described as “responding to ideas” (which carries a positive connotation), “discussing ideas” (which is an objective-sounding statement of fact), or “lecturing” or “ranting” (which give readers a negative impression). As you read, ask yourself, “What effect is the writer’s word choice likely to have on readers?”

EXERCISE 3.6

ANALYZING DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION

For each of the following words, think of one word with a similar denotation but a positive connotation and another word with a similar denotation but a negative connotation.

✵ Group (of people): positive connotation, audience; negative connotation, mob

1. choosy

2. cheap

3. smart

4. bold

5. walk

Assess Figurative Language

Figurative language is language used in a nonliteral way to create a striking impression. For example, “The teenage boy tore into his sandwich like a hyena into a fallen zebra” creates a stronger image and conveys a more meaningful description than “He ate his sandwich quickly.” The four common types of figurative expressions are:

1. Personification. Giving an object human qualities or characteristics. For example, in the sentence, “The urn glared at me from the mantelpiece,” an urn (an inanimate object) is made to seem ominous.

2. Symbolism. Using one thing to represent something else. For instance, the White House is often considered a symbol of the United States. For many people, a car symbolizes freedom.

3. Simile. Comparing two items using the word like or as. For example, in Peter Pan, J. M. Barrie describes Mrs. Darling’s mind with the following simile: “Her romantic mind was like the tiny boxes, one within the other, that come from the puzzling East.”

4. Metaphor. Comparing two objects without using the word like or as. For example, Shakespeare wrote in Romeo and Juliet, “But soft, what light through yonder window breaks? / It is the east and Juliet is the sun.” Here the speaker compares Juliet to the sun.

Most writers use figurative language to add color and shades of meaning to their writing. Carefully chosen, figurative language can persuade or convey a certain impression. For example, a political party may use powerful patriotic images, such as the White House or the bald eagle, to convey the idea that their agenda is “what’s right for America.” In the quote from Peter Pan above, the author uses figurative language to convey a strong impression of Mrs. Darling: Her mind is “romantic” (which may connote “unrealistic” or “out of touch”), and it is similar to tiny boxes within boxes from the “puzzling East.” Through this simile, Barrie implies that Mrs. Darling’s thought processes are puzzling, even to the people who know her.

When you encounter figurative language, ask yourself the following questions:

✵ How does it affect the writer’s tone?

✵ Does it advance the author’s agenda?

✵ Does it reveal bias?

✵ Is the author using figurative language to inform and delight or to hide something?

EXERCISE 3.7

RECOGNIZING SIMILES AND METAPHORS

Identify each of the following excerpts as a simile or metaphor and explain the items being compared. What is the tone of each excerpt? How does the figurative language help to convey a particular impression?

1. “She entered with ungainly struggle like some huge awkward chicken, torn, squawking, out of its coop.” — Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, “The Adventure of the Three Gables”

2. “Her father had inherited that temper; and at times, like antelope fleeing before fire on the slope, his people fled from his red rages.” — Zane Grey, Riders of the Purple Sage

3. “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? / Thou art more lovely and more temperate.” — William Shakespeare, Sonnet 18

HOW READERS WRITE

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

See “Do You Use Fresh, Appropriate Figures of Speech” in Chapter 9 for more about using figures of speech in your writing.

Identify Euphemisms and Doublespeak

A euphemism is a word or phrase that is used to avoid a word that is unpleasant, embarrassing, or otherwise objectionable. For example, many people think it is more considerate to say that a loved one “passed away” rather than “died.” Many people prefer the terms disabled and person with disabilities to the word handicapped.

Doublespeak is a type of euphemism that uses deliberately unclear or evasive language to sugarcoat an unpleasant reality. As a critical thinker you should always be alert for it, particularly when reading about business and politics. For example, a government spokesperson may say that it is engaging in “enhanced interrogation” when it is actually torturing prisoners; a corporation may tell employees that the company will be “smartsizing” instead of saying that some of them will be laid off.

Euphemisms and doublespeak use roundabout, indirect, or neutralized language to avoid stating the facts directly. Any time you encounter such language, your critical-thinking skills should kick into gear. Ask yourself questions like these:

✵ What is the author trying to prevent me from knowing?

✵ Why is the author hiding something: to spare my feelings, avoid personal embarrassment, or hide something nasty about the author or the group the author represents?

EXERCISE 3.8

RECOGNIZING EUPHEMISMS AND DOUBLESPEAK

Answer each of the following questions:

1. The media often report about people from other countries who come to the United States without permission from the U.S. government or who stay here after their permission to visit has expired. Two terms are used to refer to these people: illegal aliens and undocumented immigrants. Discuss which term seems to have a more negative connotation and which seems more neutral. Why does each term carry the connotations it does? Is the more neutral term a euphemism? Why or why not?

2. Working with a classmate, brainstorm a list of euphemisms and doublespeak currently in use in the media. Be prepared to share your list with the class.

Analyze the Author’s Tone

Tone refers to how a writer sounds to readers, and it is influenced by how the writer feels about his or her topic and readers and the language the writer uses to convey that attitude. Tone is constructed primarily by

✵ choosing words with the appropriate connotation

✵ using figurative language effectively

✵ using euphemism and doublespeak

✵ using stylistic features such as sentence patterns and length to lend emphasis

For more on sentence patterns and length, see “Analyze Your Sentences” in Chapter 9.

Using these strategies effectively, a writer can communicate surprise, disapproval, disgust, admiration, gratitude, or amusement. These are just a few of the words commonly used to describe tone; Table 3.1 lists many others. Recognizing an author’s tone will help you interpret and evaluate the message and its effect on you.

HOW READERS WRITE

TONE

EXERCISE 3.9

ANALYZING TONE

Read each of the following statements and describe its tone. Which words in the statement provide clues to the tone? (Refer to Table 3.1 if necessary.)

1. Do you eat canned tuna? Then you are at least partially responsible for the deaths of thousands of innocent dolphins, which are mercilessly slaughtered by fishermen in their quest for tuna.

2. The penalty for creating and launching a computer virus should include a personal apology to every person who was affected by the virus, and each apology should be typed — without errors! — on a manual typewriter.

3. Piles of solid waste threaten to ruin our environment, pointing to the urgent need for better disposal methods and strategies for lowering the rate of waste generation.

4. All poets seek to convey emotion and the complete range of human feeling, but the only poet who fully accomplished this goal was William Shakespeare.

EXERCISE 3.10

EXPERIMENTING WITH TONE

Consider the following situation: A developer has received permission to bulldoze an entire city block filled with burned-out tenement buildings and abandoned factories. In their place, the developer is going to build a community of three hundred upscale condominiums for people who work in the city and want to live close to their jobs.

Write three different sentences (or paragraphs) that react to this news. Make the tone of your first sentence outraged. Make the tone of your second sentence joyful. Make the tone of your third sentence nostalgic.

Analyze the Author’s Assumptions, Generalizations, and Omissions

Authors make decisions or take shortcuts that can influence readers’ understanding. For example, they make assumptions and generalizations, and they decide which information to include or exclude. As a critical reader and writer, analyze the author’s assumptions and assess whether the generalizations the author makes are fair and whether he or she omits any information that is important to a full understanding of the subject.

Recognize the Author’s Assumptions

An assumption is an idea or principle the writer accepts as true and makes no effort to prove. Often the writer implies assumptions rather than stating them directly.

Some assumptions are fair and reasonable; others are not. For example, it is reasonable to assume that most of the people who read People magazine are interested in celebrities. It is not reasonable to assume that readers of People magazine are Republicans.

Assumptions can be based on any combination of the following:

✵ anecdotal evidence

✵ facts

✵ opinions

✵ values and beliefs

✵ personal experiences

✵ background

Writers often make assumptions at the beginning of an essay and then base the rest of the essay on that assumption. If the assumption is false or cannot be proven, then the ideas that flow from it may also be incorrect. For instance, the following excerpt begins with an assumption (highlighted) that the writer makes no attempt to prove or justify:

Childbirth is a painful experience, intolerable even with appropriate medications. In response to this pain, modern women should accept the painkillers offered to them by their doctors. Why be a martyr? You have to suffer sleepless nights because of your child for the rest of your life; bring them into this world on your terms — pain free. Women should not be embarrassed or reluctant to request anesthesia during labor.

The author assumes that all women find childbirth intolerably painful and then argues that women should request anesthesia during labor. But if the writer’s initial assumption is false, much of the argument that follows should be questioned.

As you read, look for assumptions the author takes for granted, and then decide whether these assumptions are realistic and reasonable by asking questions like these:

✵ Are these assumptions supported by facts?

✵ Does the writer use terms that have more than one meaning or interpretation? Would the writer’s preferred definition be acceptable to most readers?

✵ How do the writer’s assumptions reinforce or challenge social norms (or standards)?

✵ What effects do these assumptions have on the essay? Whose interests are served?

✵ What information, beliefs, or values, if any, would raise doubts about this assumption?

The answers to these questions will help you determine whether arguments or opinions based on these assumptions make sense. If you disagree with some of the assumptions in a source, check other sources to obtain different viewpoints.

HOW READERS WRITE

ASSUMPTIONS

EXERCISE 3.11

IDENTIFYING ASSUMPTIONS

Identify the assumption(s) made in each of the following statements:

1. Computer users expect Web sites to entertain them with graphics, sound, and video.

2. In response to the problem of ozone depletion, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has designed various programs to reduce harmful emissions. It wants to stop the production of certain substances so that the ozone layer can repair itself over the next fifty years.

3. Only the routine vaccination of all children can eliminate the threat of serious disease and ensure optimum public health. These shots should be administered without hesitation. Parents must have full confidence in their doctors on this matter.

4. Since so many athletes and coaches approve of the use of performance-enhancing drugs, these substances should be allowed without regulation.

5. Because they recognize that meat consumption is environmentally damaging, environmentalists are often vegetarians.

EXERCISE 3.12

IDENTIFYING ASSUMPTIONS IN A READING

Reread “American Jerk” in Chapter 2. What assumptions does the author make in the first four paragraphs of the essay?

Assess the Author’s Generalizations

A generalization is a claim based on one or more specific examples and applied more widely. Many writers generalize to argue a point, and generalizations may be reasonable or not. They are unreasonable when they are based on too little evidence or when all the variables are not taken into consideration (hasty generalization) and also when the conclusion is applied more widely than the evidence supports (sweeping generalization). Consider the following example: A woman who feels unfulfilled in her emotional life divorces her husband, leaves her children, and decides to travel the world. As she travels, she learns more about herself and falls in love with a new man. Based on this one woman’s experience, it would be a sweeping generalization to assume that all women in search of a richer emotional life should leave their husbands and children to travel the world.

Most generalizations, however, are not so clearly reasonable or unreasonable. Imagine you are reading an article by a writer who argues that cars should be prohibited in congested cities. To support this claim, the writer cites studies showing the benefits of banning cars in three European cities. Is such a generalization fair? The reader must decide whether these three case studies provide sufficient evidence for such a generalization.

When assessing generalizations, ask yourself the following questions:

✵ How many examples has the author provided?

✵ Are these examples representative of the situation? That is, do the examples represent most people’s experiences?

✵ Can the generalization be proved scientifically? In other words, is there a scientific consensus about the generalization?

For more about reasoning — and errors in reasoning — see “Detect Faulty Reasoning” in Chapter 19 and “Effective Arguments Are Logical” in Chapter 20.

Generalizations can provide many ideas for your own writing. An informative essay might look at the evidence supporting and contradicting a generalization. A persuasive essay might argue that an assumption is unreasonable or unfair.

HOW READERS WRITE

GENERALIZATIONS

EXERCISE 3.13

IDENTIFYING GENERALIZATIONS

Label each of the following statements fact (F) or generalization (G). Indicate what support or documentation would be necessary for you to evaluate its accuracy.

1. Many women want to become pilots.

2. Elephants can vocalize at frequencies below the range of human hearing.

3. In certain parts of the Red Sea, the temperature of the water can reach 138 degrees Fahrenheit.

4. Most people who live in San Diego are associated with the U.S. Navy.

5. People all over the world showed sympathy by donating money to Serbian refugees.

Look for Purposeful Omissions

Writers and speakers sometimes mislead by omission.

✵ They leave out essential information, background, or context, or include only the details that favor their position.

✵ They adopt the passive voice (a decision was made) to avoid taking or assigning responsibility for an action.

✵ They use vague nouns and pronouns (they are bleeding our city’s coffers dry) to avoid specifying exactly what or whom they are referring to.

Consider an article written by a parent who has home-schooled her children. As an advocate of home schooling, she is likely to emphasize her children’s educational progress and her own sense of personal fulfillment achieved by teaching her children. However, she may omit information — for example, that home-schooled children sometimes feel lonely or isolated from their peers. She also may refer to home schooling as “better” for children without specifying exactly what it is better than (her local public school, public schools in general, or any kind of school) or in what ways it is better.

Regardless of what you are reading, ask yourself the following questions to be sure you are getting full and complete information:

✵ Has any important information or contradictory evidence been omitted? What, if anything, am I not being told?

✵ Is it clear to whom actions or thoughts are being attributed? If not, why not?

✵ Is there another side to this argument or aspect to this topic that I should consider?

✵ Based on my own knowledge and experience, how do I evaluate this material?

To answer these questions, you may need to do some additional reading or research.

EXERCISE 3.14

IDENTIFYING PURPOSEFUL OMISSIONS

Read the following scenarios and determine what information is being withheld from you. What additional information do you need to determine whether you are being misled?

1. You see a TV ad for a fast-food restaurant that shows a huge hamburger topped with pickles, onions, and tomatoes. The announcer says, “For a limited time, get your favorite burger for only ninety-nine cents!”

2. You open your mailbox and find a letter from a credit-card company. The letter invites you to open a charge card with no annual fee and offers you instant credit if you return the attached card in a postage-paid envelope.

3. You are shopping online for an exercise bike and find one that appears to be a good deal. The site states that it requires some assembly, shipping and handling charges may apply, and seat cushion style may vary.

EXERCISE 3.15

IDENTIFYING BIAS IN A READING SELECTION

Reread the excerpt from “American Jerk” in Exercise 3.1. Using the techniques described in “Analyze the Author’s Language,” write a paragraph explaining whether you detect hidden bias in the selection or whether the writer makes clear that he is expressing only one viewpoint among others. If you detect bias, point to purposeful omissions or other strategies (such as his word choices) the writer uses to hide his biases. If you do not, explain why you feel the excerpt is not biased.

Use the Patterns of Development to Think and Read Critically

The patterns you will learn to identify and use in Part 3 suggest useful questions for critical reading, questions that highlight aspects of the reading selection you might not otherwise have considered. Each chapter in Part 3 includes a box called “How Writers Read.” These boxes explore in depth the concerns critical readers and thinkers should address as they analyze and evaluate readings using each pattern.

Use Synthesis to Think and Read Critically

At times you may realize that you do not have sufficient knowledge or experience to analyze and evaluate an author’s ideas. In such cases, you may need to locate additional sources to fill in the gaps, provide additional viewpoints, challenge the author’s assumptions or speculations, or offer more detailed evidence. When you synthesize information from sources to assess or challenge a writer’s assumptions or claims, you must do two things:

For more about synthesis, see “Work with Sources: Evaluate Your Notes and Synthesize” in Chapter 22.

1. Synthesize, or merge, information from sources with your existing, but limited, knowledge and experience.

2. Test the evidence or claims from the original reading against your own experience and what you’ve learned from the new sources.

Use the following questions as guidelines:

✵ On what do two or more of the sources agree? On what, if anything, do they disagree?

✵ What new information or perspectives did you encounter? Did they reinforce or challenge information or ideas in the other source(s)?

✵ In what ways do the new sources help you understand the original reading? Do they provide context, expand upon a topic, or challenge the writer’s interpretation, for example?

EXERCISE 3.16

SYNTHESIZING YOUR SKILLS

As a cumulative activity and to synthesize all the critical-thinking strategies you have learned in this chapter, refer to the reading “Why Do So Many People Fall for Fake Profiles Online?” in Chapter 2, to answer the following questions:

1. Do a brief online search to evaluate Arun Vishwanath’s qualifications to write about fake profiles online. Explain why he is or is not qualified to write on this topic.

2. What types of evidence does Vishwanath use to support his ideas? Give several examples, and explain in a sentence or two whether the evidence is relevant.

3. Identify at least three statements of fact and three statements of opinion Vishwanath makes.

4. Identify at least five words with positive or negative connotations.

5. Describe the author’s tone. What effect does the tone have on you as a reader? How effective do you find it?

6. Identify at least one assumption the author makes.

7. What generalizations does the author make? List two.

8. What additional information would you need to evaluate Vishwanath’s claims?

9. Based on your analysis, do you think Vishwanath seems fair or biased? Write a paragraph justifying your answer.

Reading Visuals Critically

Visuals appear everywhere — on television and in movies; in magazines, newspapers, textbooks, and presentation slides; on signs, flyers, and billboards; in print and online. They may appear on their own, but often they are combined with text to make a message even more effective. Visuals are used so widely because they can convey information and impressions, sell products and ideas, raise questions, and trigger emotions. Because they are so powerful, make sure you study them as carefully as you read, analyze, and evaluate written text. You should also choose them carefully when you use them in your own writing.

For more about how to incorporate a visual into an essay, see “Academic Writing: Integrating Evidence from Sources” in Chapter 5.

Take a look at Figure 3.1, for example. This is a public service advertisement (PSA) from the National Highway Safety Transportation Administration. What did you notice first? Perhaps you noticed “Distraction Is Deadly: 3,166.” Or perhaps you noticed the photograph of the tombstone engraved with the letters Smh, an abbreviation for “shaking my head,” an expression often used in text messages to express disdain for something so stupid that words alone cannot convey it. Or maybe you noticed the headline “U Drive. U Text. U Pay.”

FIGURE 3.1 Distracted Driving Claims Lives

According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, distracted drivers killed more than 3,000 people in 2017. The highest rate of distracted driving occurred among those fifteen to nineteen years old.

"The advertisement reads as follows. Overview. Distracted driving is dangerous calming 3,166 lives in 2017 alone. N H T S A leads the national effort to save lives by preventing this dangerous behavior. Get the facts, get involved, and help us keep America’s roads safe. The text is followed by several social media icons like Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and Email. An accompanying photo on the right shows a tombstone engraved with the letters S M H. Text reads, “U Drive. U Text. U Pay.”"

Whatever you noticed first, second, or third, when you put the text and images together, you recognized the purpose of the ad: to encourage readers not to text while driving. The design, the colors, and the headline contrasting with the tombstone image — together these elements make a dramatic statement about the dangers of texting while driving. By combining words and images, this PSA makes the issue of texting while driving much more compelling and engaging than it would have been with written text alone.

Analyze Photographs

Use these guidelines when reading photographs and any words (captions, labels, slogans, text) that accompany them.

1. Preview the visual. What is its main subject? What did you notice first, and how did it affect you?

2. Study the visual as a whole, and then examine its parts. What is its focal point? What details appear in the foreground and the background? (Translating the photo into words may be helpful.) Is it a close-up or a distance shot? (Close-ups may reveal emotions; distance shots provide more context.)

3. Read the caption and any accompanying text, consider the context, and make connections. What information about time, place, or subject is provided? What does the author want to emphasize? How does the photo relate to the ideas presented in the surrounding text? What happened before or after the photo was taken? Is any other context provided?

4. Determine the author’s purpose and intended message. Is the purpose to inform, amuse, shock, persuade, or some combination of these or other motives? Is the photo intended to elicit a powerful reaction from viewers or to provide information?

What do you learn when you apply these guidelines to the photograph in Figure 3.2, which is taken from a communications textbook?

FIGURE 3.2 Reading Happens Anytime, Anywhere

EXERCISE 3.17

ANALYZING A TEXTBOOK PHOTO

Apply the guidelines for analyzing photos above to the photo in Figure 3.3, which is taken from an economics textbook. Then answer these questions:

1. Describe your first impression of the photo.

2. Summarize what is happening in the photo. What details convey this impression? Is it a close-up or distance shot? What is revealed (or hidden) about the subject of the photograph as a result?

3. What does the caption or any context contribute to your understanding of the photo? (This photograph appeared in an economics textbook in a chapter titled “Factor Markets and Distribution of Income.”)

4. Why did the author include this photo? Does it reveal any assumptions or biases?

5. Does the photo look staged, edited, or touched up? If so, what details convey this impression?

6. Does the photo achieve the author’s purpose? What other kinds of photos or visuals might the writer have used to make the same point? (Provide reasons or use details from the photograph to support your claim.)

FIGURE 3.3 The Value of a Degree

If you have doubts about completing college, consider this: Factory workers with high school diplomas earn much less than college graduates. The present discounted value of the difference in lifetime earnings is as much as $1 million.

Analyze Graphics

Graphics organize and condense information, making lengthy or complicated data and concepts easier to understand. Writers use many types of graphics; the purpose of each of the common types is summarized in Table 3.2.

Use these guidelines when analyzing graphics and any words (captions, labels, slogans, text) that accompany them:

1. Preview the table or chart. Read the title and caption (if any) and look quickly at the table or chart. What is it supposed to show?

2. Look at the headings (of tables/charts), labels (of figures), and legends (of charts/ figures) to determine how the data are organized. The headings and labels should indicate the variables. The legend (or guide to the colors, symbols, terms, or other information) should show what is being analyzed. A scale shows how measurements should be read.

3. Read the caption (if any) and any discussion of the graphic in the text, and make connections. Does the text explain why the graphic was included or what it is intended to show? (If not, make your own connections between the text and graphic.) To understand a complicated graphic, you may need to study the text and graphic carefully several times. Read the whole explanation in the text before looking back at the graphic.

4. Study the data to try to identify trends or patterns. Note unexpected changes (such as sudden increases or decreases in amounts), surprising statistics, or unexplained variations. Summarize any trends and note any patterns you find. Writing will crystallize the idea in your mind, and your notes will be useful for review.

5. Check the source of the data. Are the data from a reliable source? Are they up to date?

EXERCISE 3.18

ANALYZING A TABLE

Use the guidelines above to analyze Table 3.3.

EXERCISE 3.19

WORKING WITH TABLES AND FIGURES

Study the figure below, which converts some of the data from Table 3.3 into a line graph, and answer the questions that follow.

"The vertical axis represents the percentage of Americans who read an e-book, ranging from 0 to 40 in increments of 5. The horizontal axis represents age groups, 18 to 29, 30 to 49, 50 to 64, and 65 plus. The approximate data from the graph are as follows. Age group 18 to 29: 34 percent. Age group 30 to 49: 30 percent. Age group 50 to 64: 20 percent. Age group 65 plus: 15 percent."

1. Compare this figure with Table 3.3. What variables does this figure use? Which data from that table were used to create this figure?

2. What title would you give this figure? The title should accurately describe the information conveyed by the figure.

3. Write a caption for this figure that accurately describes the trend(s) it shows.

EXERCISE 3.20

WRITING ABOUT GRAPHICS

Examine the graphics that accompany the reading “Why Do So Many People Fall for Fake Profiles Online?” in Chapter 2 (or another reading chosen by your instructor). Then write a paragraph explaining their purpose, describing their organization, and discussing the trends or patterns they show.

Think Critically about Photos and Graphics

Just as you should critically examine all the words you read, you should also critically examine all visuals that accompany a reading. Photographs and graphics may reflect bias or distort information, either intentionally or unintentionally. For example, an author may choose more or less powerful or flattering photographs demonstrating support or criticism of a person or issue (see Figure 3.4).

FIGURE 3.4 The Power of Pictures

Simone Biles, American gymnast

Or an author may crop a photo to distort the viewer’s perception (see Figure 3.5). The first photo in the series shows only a gun barrel, apparently pointing at the head of the wounded soldier (the focal length appears to have been shortened); the last photo shows only the soldier being given water from a canteen; only the photo in the middle shows both the gun and the canteen.

FIGURE 3.5 Cropping Photographs to Affect Viewers’ Reactions

The left photo in the series shows a gun barrel pointed at the head of a wounded soldier. The photo in the center shows both the gun and a canteen. Another soldier is helping the soldier to drink water. The third photo on the right shows the soldier being given water from the canteen. In this photo, the gun is barely visible.

When reading graphics, consider also whether showing the data in a different type of graphic would change the reader’s perception of the information. Compare Figure 3.6 with Exercise 3.19. How does showing the data in a bar graph change your perception of the data?

FIGURE 3.6 Shaping Readers’ Perceptions through Depiction of the Data

The horizontal axis represents the age groups, 18—29, 30—49, 50—64, and 65-plus. The vertical axis represents the percentage of Americans who read books on a cell phone from 0 percent to 25 percent in increments of 5. The graph shows that 22 percent of Americans in the age group of 18—29 read books on a cell phone. This is the highest among all age groups. The second highest percentage is in the age group of 30—49 with 18 percent of Americans choosing to read books on their phones. In the age group of 50—64, 9 percent of Americans use their cell phones to read books, while only 4 percent of them in the age group of 65 and above read books on phones, the least among all age groups.

Finally, consider whether the scale or units of measurement are misleading in any way. Reducing the scale, for example, can make differences seem huge, and expanding the scale can make them seem tiny. Compare the bar graph in Figure 3.7 with that in Figure 3.6. The data used in both charts are the same, but because the chart in Figure 3.6 reduces the scale, the difference between the groups appears more dramatic than it is.

FIGURE 3.7 Misleading by Adjusting the Scale

The horizontal axis represents the age groups, 18—29, 30—49, 50—64, and 65-plus. The vertical axis represents the percentage of Americans who read books on a cell phone from 0 to 100 in increments of 10. The graph shows that 22 percent of Americans in the age group of 18—29 read books on a cell phone. This is the highest among all age groups. The second highest percentage is in the age group of 30—49 with 18 percent of Americans choosing to read books on their phones. In the age group of 50—64, 9 percent of Americans use their cell phones to read books, while only 4 percent of them in the age group of 65 and above read books on phones, the least among all age groups.

Be especially careful when pictures are used in graphics instead of lines or bars (Figure 3.8). The labels in this graphic clearly indicate that more U.S. households own dogs (36.5%) than own cats (30.4%). But the relative size of the two animals suggests that the percentage difference is much greater than 6.1% (36.5—30.4%). If you looked only at the images, you might assume that dog ownership is much greater than it really is. You might also reasonably conclude that there are more pet dogs than pet cats in the United States, but the labels indicate that the pictures represent households that own at least one cat or dog. Some households may own two, six, or even ten cats. In fact, as of 2013 the American Pet Products Association estimates that there were over 10 million more pet cats than pet dogs in the United States. But you wouldn’t know this from a glance at this graphic.

FIGURE 3.8 Cat and Dog Ownership in the United States

SOURCE: Data from American Pet Products Association, American Veterinary Medicine Association, and the Humane Society of the United States. humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html, avma.org/KB/Resources/Statistics/Pages/Market-research-statistics-US-pet-ownership.aspx.

The horizontal axis has two markings, as follows. 30.4 percent of U.S. households own at least one cat, and 36.5 percent of U.S. households own at least one dog.

Just-in-Time Guide to Reading and Responding

✵ 1 GETTING STARTED

o 1a If I don’t know anything about the subject, what should I do?

o 1b What can I do to keep my mind on an unappealing topic or selection?

o 1c How can I figure out what I am supposed to learn from an assignment?

o 1d What should I do when an assignment has me feeling overwhelmed or completely lost?

✵ 2 LEARNING WORDS

o 2a Do I need to learn every unfamiliar word?

o 2b What should I do if I don’t know the meaning of a word?

o 2c Which online resources are useful for vocabulary development?

o 2d How can I learn the words I need to know?

✵ 3 READING PARAGRAPHS: MAIN IDEAS

o 3a How do I identify the topic of a paragraph?

o 3b How do I find the topic sentence?

o 3c How do I figure out the implied main idea of a paragraph?

✵ 4 READING PARAGRAPHS: DETAILS

o 4a How do I know which details are worth remembering?

o 4b What should I do if I don’t understand a sentence or a detail?

✵ 5 READING ESSAYS AND TEXTBOOK CHAPTERS

o 5a What should I do if I just can’t get started on the assignment?

o 5b How can I keep from getting lost in a difficult and lengthy reading assignment?

o 5c How can I be sure I am understanding what I read?

✵ 6 REVIEWING

o 6a Should I reread assigned chapters or reading selections to review?

o 6b How can I remember what I just read?

o 6c How can I prepare for a quiz on a reading assignment?

o 6d How can I prepare for class discussions based on a reading assignment?

o 6e What should I do if I highlight practically everything?

Many of the reading assignments for your college courses will be straightforward. Some, however, may make you throw your up hands and say, “I can’t handle this!” This guide will help you overcome the obstacles you face and find answers to the questions you have. This guide is the help you need, just in time. Because reading and writing are two sides of the same process, much of what you learn in this Just-in-Time Guide can be flipped and applied to issues you encounter as a writer.

1 Getting Started

Each time you begin a new reading, you are starting from scratch. What do you do if you’re having difficulty getting started?

1a If I don’t know anything about the subject, what should I do?

Having even a small amount of background knowledge will help you orient yourself to the reading, which will help you learn more. Use these two key strategies: Preview the reading, and Google the topic.

1. Preview the reading. You learned to preview in Chapter 2. It is a fast and easy way to become familiar with the reading’s content and organization, and it gives you a good sense of what the selection is about. If you’re having trouble getting started (or even if you’re not), begin by previewing.

2. Google the topic, especially unfamiliar terminology. To find needed background information, look for sources that are written for the beginner or novice and that come from a credible source. For example, suppose your biology instructor assigns a chapter titled “Biodiversity.” A quick Web search will help you learn the basic meaning of biodiversity (“the variety of life in a particular habitat”). Note: Many other search engines can be as effective as Google. Try using Ask.com, WebCrawler, and Yahoo if Google doesn’t return the results you want. Also, if you’re a visual learner, try searching YouTube for videos that provide background information on your topic.

For more about credibility, see Chapter 21.

1b What can I do to keep my mind on an unappealing topic or selection?

All readings are not equally interesting. How do you stay focused on dry, technical reading assignments, especially when you’re not particularly interested in the topic?

1. Ask and answer questions. Create a dialogue with the text. By asking and answering questions about the reading, you turn the reading into a quest for information. You can base your questions on titles or chapters or sections, like so:

2. Be active: write, think, talk aloud, draw diagrams. Read with a pencil in your hand. Take notes in the margins, sketch out important concepts, or write a response at the top or bottom of the page. Get up, walk around the room, and talk to yourself about what you’ve read to get ideas flowing.

3. Predict what will come next. Writers provide signals (transitions and repetition) to prepare you for what’s coming next. Watch for these cues. When you see one, stop for a moment to predict what the author is about to say:

Nonverbal communication means communication that takes place without words or sounds. Body language is a key form of nonverbal communication. For example, standing with your arms crossed can send a signal that you are feeling mistrustful, insecure, or uncomfortable.

Expect an illustration of body language to follow.

4. Brainstorm with classmates. Talk with your classmates to clarify concepts and form study groups. In your study group, prepare for exams by trying to figure out which questions will be on the exam. If a group member comes up with a question that you can’t answer, write it down and ask your instructor during the next class session.

5. Relate the author’s ideas to your own experience. You will learn the material more effectively and have a better sense of its relevance if you can relate the ideas you are reading about to your own life or experience. Consider this example from a sociology textbook:

The text reads, “A dyad is a group of two people, the smallest possible social group.” In this sentence, “dyad” is circled.

1c How can I figure out what I am supposed to learn from an assignment?

Your instructor and your course materials (such as your syllabus or textbook) can help you determine what exactly you need to learn from each assignment:

1. Take cues from your instructor. Often your instructor will identify the goals for each assignment. If you’re not sure of your instructor’s expectations, ask.

2. Refer to the syllabus. Determine how each assignment matches the course goals or learning objectives on the syllabus, and spend more time on readings that directly relate to each of those objectives. If you are unsure of the goal of any given assignment, don’t be shy about asking your instructor. Do not ask “Will this be on the test?” — which implies that you care only about the right answers and not about gaining knowledge or learning. Rather, ask “What should I be able to do after reading this assignment?”

For more about how to use a syllabus, see Chapter 1.

3. Use learning objectives. Learning objectives often appear in textbooks, either at the beginning of the chapter (as in this text) or at the beginning of each new section. They often begin with imperative verbs (commands) like describe, list, explain, define, compare, summarize, or analyze. As you complete each section, make sure you can do exactly what the learning objective says you must do.

1d What should I do when an assignment has me feeling overwhelmed or completely lost?

Sometimes, despite your best efforts, you feel completely defeated by an assignment. No matter how hard you try, you can’t make any progress — but you still have to complete it. What should you do?

1. Read the headnote or chapter introduction. Both provide invaluable pathways into the reading.

o A headnote is brief information about the assignment that appears after the author and title, but before the reading itself. Headnotes are often included with essays or literature. They provide key biographical information about the author, along with some context about the reading.

o A chapter introduction often includes a vignette, or story, or a visual that helps to set the stage for the chapter. Many students are tempted to skip the chapter introduction because they think, “I just want to get on with it.” Skipping chapter introductions is a mistake, because they often include interesting examples that bring concepts to life.

2. Read the items that follow the reading. A highly effective way to prepare yourself for a reading assignment is to preview the end-of-chapter material.

o Lists of key terms identify essential vocabulary.

o Summaries and comprehension, discussion, and critical-thinking questions signal which material is most important in the chapter.

It shows a heading ""Core Concepts Summary"" with two units, 2.1 and 2.2. Under the heading, the topic is further divided page wise like page 2-1, 2-2 and more, which highlights the various topics the chapter covers on each page.

The topics are as follows:

2.1 The atom is the fundamental unit of matter.

Atoms consist of positively charged protons and electrically neutral in the nucleus, and negatively charged electrons darting around the nucleus. Page 2 to 1.

The number of protons determines the identity of an atom. Page 2 to 2.

Protons and neutrons together determine the mass of an atom page 2 to 2.

Protons and electrons determine the charge of an atom. Page 2 to 3.

Negatively charged electrons travel around the nucleus in regions called orbitals. Page 2 to 3.

The periodic table of the elements reflects a regular and repeating pattern in the chemical behavior of elements. Page 2 to 3.

2.2 Atoms can combine to form molecules linked by chemical bonds.

Electrons that occupy the outermost energy level (shell of an atom (valence electrons) determine its ability to combine with other atoms to form molecules. Page 2 to 4.

A covalent bond results from the sharing of electrons between atoms to form molecular orbitals. Page 2 to 4.

A polar covalent bond results when two atoms do not share electrons equally as a result of a difference in the ability of the atoms to attract electrons, a property called electronegativity. Page 2 to 5.

3. Talk to your instructor. When all else fails, ask your instructor for help. He or she may be able to recommend background readings or study aids, refer you to the tutoring center, and offer other tools that will help you. Do not be afraid to approach your instructors; they are there to help you learn.

2 Learning Words

Words are the building blocks of language; they are the keys to both reading and writing more effectively. As a college student, you will encounter many unfamiliar words.

2a Do I need to learn every unfamiliar word?

The answer is no! (This is not the answer you expected, right?) It is impossible to learn all the words in the English language. Instead, focus on learning vocabulary that you will need to write effectively in your classes (including essay exams).

Each academic discipline has its own vocabulary, a set of terms that is unique to the field or that is used in a specific way. For example, in psychology, you may need to learn terms such as placebo effect (“improvement resulting from the belief that medicine is effective”) or understand the specialized meaning of the word extinction (“the gradual weakening of conditioned behavior”).

It shows a paragraph with heading, extinction and spontaneous recovery. A detailed explanation of the terms used in the paragraph is on the right, along with brief explanations.

You can recognize the terms you need to learn because

✵ Your instructor will use them. She may emphasize or define terms in class: “Make sure you understand the key elements of Pavlovian conditioning.” Or she may repeat them or list them on a lecture slide. Record these terms in your class notes and code them so that you can find them easily for study and review.

✵ Your textbook will define them. These terms may appear in the text (in boldface or italics, as in the example on p. 89), in the margin, in a list of key terms at the end of the chapter, or in a glossary at the end of the book.

The key terms are as follows:

Learning paragraph 184.

Conditioning paragraph 184.

Classical conditioning paragraph 186.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS), paragraph 186.

Unconditioned response (UCR), paragraph 186.

Conditioned response (CR), paragraph 186.

Stimulus generalization. Paragraph 188.

Stimulus discrimination, paragraph 188.

Higher order conditioning, paragraph 188.

Extinction (in classical conditioning), p.189.

✵ They appear in research articles or reports in scholarly journals.

2b What should I do if I don’t know the meaning of a word?

1. Pronounce it. By pronouncing the word magnific aloud, you may hear part of the word magnify and know that it has something do with enlargement. This general meaning may give you enough information to continue reading. (Magnific means “large, imposing, or impressive.”)

2. Look for context clues to meaning. These clues may appear within the sentence or in surrounding sentences.

The first clue is given as:

✵ Definition or Synonym

- Example: The poet prefaced, or introduced, her reading with a personal story.

In the above sentence, the word “introduced” is underlined and the text reads, “introduced is a synonym for prefaced.”

The second clue is given as:

✵ Example

- Example: Opiates, such as methadone, oxycodone, and morphine, are often misused and abused.

In the above sentence, words “methadone, oxycodone, and morphine” are underlined and the text reads, “These examples suggest that opiates are painkilling drugs.”

✵ Contrast/Opposites

- Example: In certain societies children are always on the periphery, never the center, of family life.

In the above sentence, the phrase “never the center” is underlined and the text reads, “This phrase provides a term opposite in meaning.”

✵ Inference

- Example: After the playoff game, a fracas broke out among hometown fans of the losing team.

In the above sentence, the text given reads as, “Your experience helps you understand that fracas means scuffle or brawl.”

Be sure to confirm that you have figured out the correct meaning by substituting the meaning in the sentence and checking that it makes sense.

3. Use word parts. Many words are made up of prefixes (beginnings), roots (middles), and suffixes (endings) that have specific meanings. By looking at its parts, you may be able to figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Understanding the word parts will make the word easier to remember, too.

o If you are studying the sciences, you will find word parts essential in learning a vast number of new vocabulary words. In anatomy and physiology, for example, if you learn that hypo means “below” or “deficient,” you can figure out words such as hypodermis (the lowest layer of the skin), hypocalcemia (calcium deficiency), hypoglycemic (low blood sugar), hypotension (low blood pressure), and so forth.

4. Use a dictionary. Dictionaries are no longer huge, clunky books that sit on library stands — they now appear online and as smartphone apps, and most of them are free. Many e-readers, including Amazon Kindle, have built-in dictionaries that allow you to click on a word and pull up its definition. Even Microsoft Word has a built-in dictionary that you can access by highlighting a word and right-clicking on it.

o Some online dictionaries such as Merriam-Webster.com feature an audio button that you can “push” to hear the word pronounced out loud. Most dictionaries also provide the word’s etymology (origin and history), which can be useful in helping you learn the word.

It shows various icons at the top and the word to be searched below the icons. Along with the simple definition of the word, full definition, examples of usage of the word in a sentence, its origin and etymology and synonyms are also given. A column on the right trending now shows different words with their meanings. Here, the word “Juggernaut” is searched. The screen shows simple definition and full definition of juggernaut.

o Because accessing a dictionary is now so easy, you might think a dictionary should be your first line of defense, but if you find many unfamiliar words in a passage, looking up every one may not be practical. You are also more likely to learn a word if you try pronouncing it, looking for context clues, or analyzing its parts before turning to a dictionary.

5. Make marginal notes. When you figure out the meaning of a new word or look it up, jot its meaning in the margin so you don’t forget it. Writing down the word’s meaning also helps to cement it in your memory.

This is a sample content for Long ALT text

2c Which online resources are useful for vocabulary development?

The following resources are reliable and trustworthy:

✵ Merriam-Webster.com is a reliable online dictionary that offers audio pronunciation and etymology, as well as definitions, synonyms, and antonyms.

✵ Refdesk.com is an online reference source that provides factual information about people, places, and events. (This site is chock-full of links, so stay focused on finding what you need.) You will find the links to dictionary.com and Merriam-Webster at the center of the page, under the category “More Word of the Day.”

2d How can I learn the words I need to know?

The key to learning any new word is to use it. Experts estimate that you need to use a word five to ten times before you learn it, so practice using new vocabulary at every opportunity as you speak and write.

✵ Be sure you know how to pronounce the word. Use online dictionaries to hear the word’s correct pronunciation. Many people are reluctant to use a word if they are uncertain about its pronunciation.

✵ Think of two synonyms and one antonym for the word.

✵ Use the word in a sentence or two. Write the sentences down.

✵ Draw diagrams. Creating diagrams that show relationships between terms may be helpful. For example, in biology, you might draw the following map to help you remember the three bodily sense systems.

It shows the word somethetic (body) senses is divided in three parts as,

✵ Skin senses (touch, pressure, temperature, pain)

✵ Kinesthetic senses (location of body parts)

✵ Vestibular senses (movement and body position)

✵ For technical, specialized, or challenging terminology, use flash cards. Write the word on the front of an index card, and write its meaning (and pronunciation) on the back, or use one of the many online sites that enable you to create electronic flash cards. (Note: Writing your own flash cards may work better than typing them or using preprinted ones.) The secret to success in using flash cards is to test yourself to determine which words you have learned and which need further study.

3 Reading Paragraphs: Main Ideas

Paragraphs are the building blocks of good writing. Here are some strategies for understanding the key idea of any paragraph.

3a How do I identify the topic of a paragraph?

The one general subject discussed in the paragraph is its topic. Every sentence in the paragraph explains or discusses this topic. Consider this paragraph:

Topic sentence

Weather forecasts have become as sensationalistic as any story in The National Enquirer or on TMZ. Weather is a fact of life across the globe, and each year the TV news reports (sometimes for hours at a time) on bouts of severe weather, including thunderstorms, blizzards, hurricanes, and tornadoes. Meteorologists — especially those on TV — make a habit of acting as if every snowstorm, heavy rainstorm, or hurricane is going to destroy thousands of homes, kill millions of people, and cause billions in damage. These forecasts whip people up into a frenzy of fear when the truth is that most storms cause fairly little damage in isolated areas. The highest cost of these storms is the emotional toll that sensationalized forecasts take on people who stay glued to the TV set listening to the weatherpeople predicting the end of the world.

The topic of this paragraph is sensationalistic weather forecasts. Each sentence in the paragraph is related to this topic.

3b How do I find the topic sentence?

The topic of a paragraph is often found in a topic sentence, which states the paragraph’s main idea. Often, the topic sentence is the first sentence of the paragraph, but sometimes it comes in the middle of the paragraph and sometimes at the end. Use the following strategies to find the topic sentence:

1. Distinguish between general and specific. The topic sentence is usually the most general sentence in the paragraph, while all the other sentences offer specific support for the topic sentence. Analyze the structure of the paragraph to determine which sentence is the most general. That sentence is the topic sentence.

General

Specific (no underline)

Weather forecasts have become as sensationalistic as any story in The National Enquirer or any celebrity-scandal story on TMZ. Weather is a fact of life across the globe, and each year the TV news reports (sometimes for hours at a time) on bouts of severe weather, including thunderstorms, blizzards, hurricanes, and tornadoes. Meteorologists — especially those on TV — make a habit of acting as if every snowstorm, heavy rainstorm, or hurricane is going to destroy thousands of homes, kill millions of people, and cause billions in damage. These forecasts whip people up into a frenzy of fear, terror, and anxiety when the truth is that most storms cause fairly little damage in isolated areas.

2. Look for a sentence that introduces the topic. When you read a how-to paragraph, for example, the sentence that precedes the first step is often the topic sentence, as in the following paragraph:

Topic sentence

Buying a new car is a nerve-racking experience for many people, but it doesn’t have to be. You can follow a few simple steps to get the car you want for the right price. First, do your research on the Internet. Find out the invoice price and whether the manufacturer is offering any special incentives to the dealer. Next, go to the dealership and announce, “I want to buy a car today.” You will receive instant and close attention. Third, use the broken-record method of negotiating by saying the same thing over and over again: “I want to pay $X for this car.”

3. Ask questions. You can ask two simple questions that together will help you identify the topic sentence:

o If I had to choose a title for this paragraph, which one or two words would I use?

o What sentence in the paragraph makes the main point about the topic I identified in my title?

3c How do I figure out the implied main idea of a paragraph?

Sometimes paragraphs do not include a topic sentence. In those paragraphs, you must infer the main idea from the content. Consider the following paragraph:

Use repeated words and ideas to identify the implied main idea.

The United States is a democracy, but almost half of the U.S. population (44% to be exact) does not vote in presidential elections. Data exist for voter turnout in 170 of the world’s nations; the United States ranks at #120 on the list. Only 20% of young people (ages 18—24) bother to cast a vote in any election. In local (city) elections, as few as 10% of registered voters show up at the polls. Almost 25% of American adults have not even registered to vote.

How can you determine the implied main idea?

1. Find the topic. Whether the paragraph states its main idea directly or not, a paragraph is always a collection of sentences on a single topic. To identify the topic, notice its frequent repetition of related terms or ideas. Then you ask yourself, “What is the one idea that is repeated in the paragraph?” The answer is clear: Low voter turnout in the United States.

2. Decide what the writer wants you to know about the topic. You can think of the implied main idea as the general idea that is supported by the specifics. In the paragraph about voter turnout, the author has provided shocking statistics about the lack of voter turnout in the United States. All of the sentences point to the general implied main idea: “Although the United States is a democracy in which voting is essential to the political process, there is widespread apathy among American voters, and many do not bother going to the polls.”

4 Reading Paragraphs: Details

The sentences that support a paragraph’s main idea are its details. Not all details are equally important.

4a How do I know which details are worth remembering?

Sometimes everything in a paragraph looks important; other times, nothing seems worth remembering. You may be right in both cases.

1. Sometimes none of the details is essential to learn and remember. In the following paragraph, all the detail sentences are just examples. Not any one is important in itself to remember, but together they do give you a better sense of the author’s main point. You could highlight one to jog your memory, or just mark “ex” in the margin.

Topic (or main idea) sentence

Examples (no underline)

Criticism refers to materials that respond to and evaluate a particular work. A film critic may write a movie review examining the plot and characterization, as well as the cinematography. A magazine review may evaluate a new mystery novel by comparing it to others of the same genre. A scientist may respond to a recently published research study on immunotherapy, challenging its methodology.

2. Sometimes the paragraph contains only important details, details that directly explain or support the main idea. Pay attention to all of these.

Topic (or main idea) sentence

Key details

McClelland, a well-known Harvard psychologist, hypothesized that human behavior is motivated by three distinct psychological needs. The need for affiliation involves seeking to be liked by others and held in high regard by them. The need for power urges people to influence or seek control over others. The need for achievement involves reaching both realistic and idealistic goals.

3. Some paragraphs contain secondary details that explain more about the important details. Secondary details are not essential to remember.

Secondary details

McClelland, a well-known Harvard psychologist, hypothesized that human behavior is motivated by three distinct psychological needs. The need for affiliation involves seeking to be liked by others and held in high regard by them. Those motivated by the need for affiliation enjoy working with others and work well in groups. The need for power urges people to influence or seek control over others. For these individuals, status and prestige are important; some may tend to be showy and ruthless. The need for achievement involves reaching both realistic and idealistic goals. Those motivated to achieve seek evaluation and feedback about their ideas and skills and tend to seek challenge.

4. Use transitions to guide you from primary detail to primary detail. Notice how the writer uses the transitions “first,” “second,” and “finally” to lead you from one reason to the next.

Transitions

Within human communication, silence is the absence of speech, but it, too, can carry meaning. First, silence can be a weapon used against others; think of it as a kind of punishment. After a quarrel, a spouse may refuse to speak to his or her partner, communicating anger or disappointment. Second, the lack of speech may express emotion. Refusing to speak may indicate lack of cooperation or defiance. Imagine a silent child pouting, for example. Finally, silence can suggest shyness or discomfort. A person new to a group may be silent until he or she learns what the group accepts and expects.

Other common transitions include for example, in conclusion, meanwhile, and however. You can find a list of the most commonly used transitions in Table 6.1.

4b What should I do if I don’t understand a sentence or a detail?

1. Keep reading! Sometimes the rest of the paragraph or selection will provide the clues you need to make sense of the confusing detail, or you may realize that you really don’t need that particular detail to fulfill your purpose. If, after reading the whole selection, you still don’t understand a detail that seems important, first figure out any unfamiliar words. (See 2. Learning Words.) Then try to express the detail in your own words.

2. Look for and pay attention to examples. Examples often make complicated or difficult concepts clear and easy to understand.

Challenging text

Example that clarifies and explains

How will entry or exit by other firms affect the profits of a typical existing firm? Because the differentiated products offered by firms in a monopolistically competitive industry compete for the same set of customers, entry or exit by other firms will affect the demand curve facing every existing producer. If new gas stations open along a highway, each of the existing gas stations will no longer be able to sell as much gas as before at a given price.

5 Reading Essays and Textbook Chapters

The two most common reading assignments in college courses are essays and textbook chapters. Use the following strategies to plan your reading schedule and complete your assignments on time.

5a What should I do if I just can’t get started on the assignment?

Sometimes assignments are intimidating. The key to getting started is to make the assignment manageable.

1. Divide the task into doable pieces, and work in time blocks. A typical textbook chapter is twenty to thirty pages long. A long essay or journal article may be fifteen to twenty pages long. To make a long, complicated text more manageable, start by previewing the assignment, looking for breaks indicated by headings, numbers, or some other element. Then read one chunk at a time, perhaps over several days.

2. Reward yourself when you complete the task. Give yourself a small treat, such as a healthy snack or a half hour of YouTube, to motivate you to finish.

5b How can I keep from getting lost in a difficult and lengthy reading assignment?

1. Review previously read material before beginning new material. Take a moment to flip through the previous chapter or review your class notes. Doing so will activate your memory and orient you to the new assignment. This strategy is particularly helpful when you are moving from one discipline to another — for example, when you have just completed your philosophy reading and must now move on to your economics assignment.

2. Look for patterns. The author of your assignment may have used a specific pattern in each section of the chapter you are reading. For example, each major section in an economics textbook may be organized in this manner:

o heading

o key terms and definitions

o examples

o graphical analysis

o application to the real world

o comprehension questions

By identifying this pattern, you get into the flow of reading the chapter. You know what to expect, and you train your brain to learn the concepts according to the system the author has set up. Trust the author’s system of organization! Most textbook authors are expert teachers, and they write their books to maximize students’ ability to learn the material. Also look for patterns of text development and the transitions that signal them. For an overview of these patterns, see Chapter 10.

3. Create an overview (an outline, graphic organizer, or a diagram) and refer to it frequently. Research shows that taking notes (especially by hand) while reading increases comprehension and learning. On a separate sheet of paper, draw a diagram of each main section or create a point-by-point outline or graphic organizer. If you are a visual learner, try drawing a branching diagram or idea map.

For more about creating an outline or graphic organizer, see Chapter 2 and Chapter 7.

5c How can I be sure I am understanding what I read?

Have you ever finished reading an essay and thought, “What did I just read? My mind is a complete blank.” Don’t worry — it happens to everyone occasionally. Fortunately, two useful strategies can help:

1. Express each idea in your own words. After reading each main section of a textbook chapter or essay, write out the main idea in your own words. Do not simply copy topic sentences from the text. By restating the key idea in your own words, you test your own understanding of the material. If you can’t accomplish this task, you didn’t really understand what you read. Reread the section and try again to capture the main idea before moving on to the next section. (Essays may have no section breaks. In this case, stop every few pages to summarize what you’ve read.)

2. Test yourself. Use the textbook features — such as the learning objectives at the start of the chapter or the key concepts at the end of the chapter — to test yourself. If the book provides an answer key, use it to check your work, not to avoid doing the work. (The latter strategy will come back to bite you at exam time.) If your text lacks learning objectives or a list of key concepts, turn headings into questions and then make sure you can answer those questions correctly. Use the results of your self-testing to determine which materials need further study or review.

6 Reviewing

Students frequently think that rereading is a great tool for learning, but other strategies, like those listed below, often work better.

6a Should I reread assigned chapters or reading selections to review?

You may need to reread challenging assignments to understand them. But don’t make a habit of rereading all of your assignments from start to finish to review.

1. Reread only for a specific purpose. Comprehension improves when you identify main ideas and key supporting details, not when you reread the entire assignment. To ensure that you have understood a difficult paragraph, it makes sense to reread the paragraph. But by the time you finish the assignment, you should reread only sections and only for a specific purpose — for example, to find a piece of information, to review a concept you find challenging, or to check your understanding of a particular topic.

2. Use alternative strategies for review. Rather than rereading the entire assignment, try these strategies:

o Test yourself by anticipating exam questions. Make up questions based on headings or visual aids, and write the answers to them.

o Write, highlight, annotate, paraphrase, or summarize. Take your pick; each can be useful, depending on the situation.

o Memorize key information when you have to. Sometimes there is no substitute for simple memorization. Use flash cards to help you memorize key vocabulary. Also develop memory tricks, or mnemonics, to aid in recall. For example, many students use the name “Roy G. Biv” to remember the colors of the rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Or they use the acronym HOMES to remember the names of the Great Lakes: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior. Develop a set of mnemonics that work for you.

6b How can I remember what I just read?

Immediate review and periodic review are the keys to learning and then retaining information.

1. Review right after you read. When you’re done reading the assignment, don’t simply close the book and move on. Rather, spend five to ten minutes flipping through the selection, rereading your notes, and gauging your understanding of the material. Keep a list with two columns: “Material I Understand and Remember” and “Material I Need to Review and Practice.” Use this list to aid in periodic review.

2. Review what you’ve read periodically (say, once a week). The best way to keep information in your memory is to review it periodically. If six weeks will elapse between your first reading of the assignment and the test, spend a bit of time (perhaps half an hour) in each of those six weeks reviewing your notes. Then, the night before the test, you will not need to cram in order to relearn the material.

3. Write to consolidate information. By writing out information, you will remember and learn it better. Research shows that writing by hand aids recall better than typing on a computer does.

6c How can I prepare for a quiz on a reading assignment?

Try these strategies:

1. Highlight and annotate as you read, and review your highlighting and annotations. For guidelines on how to highlight and annotate effectively, see Chapter 2.

2. Outline or summarize the reading. Draw a graphic organizer or create an outline to help you understand the reading’s content, organization, and key points. Write a one-paragraph summary in your own words, and then evaluate your summary: Ask yourself, “Would this summary tell someone who has not read the essay what the essay is about?” For detailed instructions on outlining and drawing a graphic organizer, see Chapter 7; for detailed instructions on summarizing, see Chapter 2.

3. Test yourself by predicting and answering questions. Write actual questions and practice answering them within a certain period of time. Doing so not only gives you practice at writing a timed response, but it also pushes you to identify the ideas you’ve learned and those you need to brush up on. (Quizzes will most likely focus on key points rather than secondary or unimportant details.)

6d How can I prepare for class discussions based on a reading assignment?

Often, your instructor will use the reading assignment as the basis for a class or group discussion. The instructor will often say something like, “Be prepared to discuss this essay during our next class session.”

1. Make marginal notes as you read. Jot down your reactions in the margins, engaging in a “conversation” with the assignment. Write not only about agreements, but also about disagreements, examples from your own life or other classes, and further thoughts on the topic. Then review your annotations after you’ve completed the assignment.

2. Write in your journal. A response journal is a section of your writing journal in which you record summaries of readings, along with your reactions to and questions about those readings. Chapter 2 provides details about two useful formats: the open-page format and the two-column format.

6e What should I do if I highlight practically everything?

Too much highlighting is a common error. Here are some tips for highlighting just the right amount of your reading assignment:

1. Determine what you need to know. Highlight only main ideas and important details. If you have trouble identifying main ideas, see section 4a of this guide, “How do I know which details are important and worth remembering?” As a general rule, do not highlight full sentences, and highlight no more than one-quarter of a page. Limiting your highlighting forces you to sort more important from less important ideas, and this sorting process enhances learning.

2. Read a paragraph or short section first; then go back and highlight it. By doing so, you give yourself time to identify what’s important. Use headings and boldfaced key terms to help you determine what should be highlighted. Consider using different highlighting colors for different types of information — for example, use yellow for key vocabulary and definitions and blue for key examples. (Make sure you use colors that are easy to read through.)

3. Compare your highlighting with a classmate’s. Determine which of you has a more effective method of highlighting, and then adapt your highlighting methods accordingly.