English Grammar Drills - Mark Lester 2009
Count and noncount nouns
1 Nouns
Part 1 Noun Phrases
Common nouns are divided into two groups: count and noncount. Count means that we can make the noun plural and use number words with the noun. Using the noun dog, for example, we can make the noun plural:
The dogs are in the park.
We can also use number words with dogs: one dog, two dogs, three dogs, and so on. Most nouns that refer to concrete objects are count nouns.
However, nouns that refer to abstractions and nouns that are used to label things that occur in undifferentiated masses (as opposed to individual persons, places, or things) are often noncount nouns. The term noncount means that we cannot count these nouns with number words or make them plural. For example, the abstract noun luck cannot be counted: we cannot say X one luck, X two lucks, X three lucks. Also we cannot use the noun as a plural. For example:
*X They have had really bad lucks over the last few years.
*Throughout the book, X signifies an incorrect choice or answer.
Count nouns
Most count nouns in English form their plural by adding a sibilant sound written as -s or -es. Plurals formed this way are called regular plurals. Some nouns form their plural in other ways. They are called irregular plurals.
The spelling of a regular plural is determined by its pronunciation. If the plural is pronounced as a single sibilant sound pronounced either as /s/ or /z/, then the plural is spelled -s. However, if the plural is pronounced as a separate unstressed syllable /əz/ rhyming with “buzz,” then the plural is spelled -es. Here are some examples of each type:
Spelling of plural
- s (pronounced /s/): hats, cops, tricks, paths
- s (pronounced /z/): rugs, cabs, rings, keys, shoes
- es (pronounced /əz/): wishes, glasses, catches, buzzes
Sometimes the spelling of regular plurals is disguised by the spelling rule that governs the use of a final silent e. The basic rule is that we add a final silent e to show that the preceding vowel is long. For example, compare the following words:
Short vowel: cap (a is a short vowel /æ/ as in ask)
Long vowel: cape (a is a long vowel /ey/ as in grape)
We make both of these words plural by adding a single sibilant sound:
Singular Plural
cap caps /-ps/
cape capes /-ps
The final silent e in the word cape makes the plural look like the -es is pronounced as a separate syllable /əz/, but it is not. We have merely added a single sibilant sound, /s/, to the end of the singular form. Caps and capes have the same plural /s/ sound because although the silent e makes the a long, it plays no role in the pronunciation of the plural ending. Just pretend that final silent e is not there when you pronounce the /s/.
The pronunciation of the plural in regular nouns is determined by the final sound of the singular form of the noun according to the following three rules:
1. If the noun ends in a voiceless consonant sound (except a sibilant), then the plural is formed with the voiceless sibilant /s/, which is spelled -s. Here are examples of all the consonant sounds that this rule applies to:
/p/ cap-caps; cop-cops; snap-snaps; shape-shapes; hope-hopes
/t/ hat-hats; boat-boats; beast-beasts; fate-fates; rebate-rebates
/k/ back-backs; leak-leaks; trick-tricks; bike-bikes; lake-lakes
/f/ cliff-cliffs; cough-coughs; laugh-laughs; cuff-cuffs; sniff-sniffs
/ϴ/ path-paths; lath-laths; monolith-monoliths, bath-baths
2. If the noun ends in a voiced consonant sound (except a sibilant) or any vowel (all vowels in English are voiced), then the plural is formed with the voiced sibilant /z/, which is also spelled -s. Here are examples of all the consonant sounds that this rule applies to:
/b/ lab-labs; web-webs; blob-blobs; globe-globes; tube-tubes
/d/ bed-beds; fluid-fluids; flood-floods; code-codes; shade-shades
/g/ bug-bugs; rag-rags; flag-flags, pig-pigs; hog-hogs
/v/ wave-waves; hive-hives; love-loves; live-lives; cove-coves
/l/ girl-girls; pill-pills; wheel-wheels; role-roles; rule-rules
/m/ ham-hams; farm-farms; room-rooms; flame-flames; home-homes
/n/ hen-hens; teen-teens; moon-moons; loan-loans; tune-tunes; throne-thrones
/ƞ/ ring-rings; thing-things; throng-throngs; rung-rungs; song-songs
Since all vowels are voiced in English, this rule also governs the plural of all words ending in a vowel sound. For example:
sea-seas; zoo-zoos; cow-cows; bee-bees; show-shows; tree-trees
Words ending in the letter y are little more complicated. When the singular form of a word ends in a consonant + the letter y (that is, when the letter y represents a vowel sound), we form the regular plural by changing the y to i and adding -es. (There is a schoolroom saying that goes like this: “Change the y to i and add -es.”)
The plural -s is pronounced /z/ in the expected way. The change of y to ie does not affect pro- nunciation—it is a graphic change only. Here are some examples (all with a /z/ pronunciation):
Singular Plural
baby babies
family families
lady ladies
sky skies
story stories
When the letter y is combined with a vowel, a different spelling rule applies. To see the difference, compare the spellings of the plurals of the words fly and toy:
Singular Plural
fly flies
toy toys
In the word fly, the y by itself represents a vowel sound. That is why the spelling rule that changes the y to i states that the y must be preceded by a consonant—this is just a way of ensuring that we are talking about y used by itself to represent a vowel sound.
In the word toy, the vowel sound is represented by a combination of the two letters o + y, which is sometimes called a blend. Think of the oy spelling as a fixed unit that cannot be changed. To form its plural we merely add an s (pronounced /z/) as we would with any other vowel spelling. Combinations of other vowels with y follow the same rule. Here are some more examples of oy, ey, and ay plural spellings:
Singular Plural
boy boys
key keys
subway subways
tray trays
Exercise 1.2
All of the nouns in the following list form their plural in the regular way with a single sibilant sound spelled -s. Depending on the nature of the final sound in the singular form of the noun, the -s can be pronounced either /s/ or /z/. Write the entire plural form of the noun in the /s/ or /z/ column that shows the pronunciation of the plural -s. (Hint: Say the words out loud. If you whisper or say them to yourself, voiced sounds will be automatically de-voiced so they will sound the same as voiceless sounds.)
Singular form /s/ /z/
flame flames
1. three
2. trick
3. stool
4. history
5. wall
6. rake
7. play
8. stove
9. cough
10. moth
11. day
12. note
13. delay
14. hike
15. tire
16. rain
17. plate
18. grove
19. show
20. pipe
3. If the noun ends in a sibilant sound, either voiceless or voiced, then the plural is pronounced as a separate unstressed syllable /əz/ rhyming with “buzz,” spelled -es. (Of course, if the singular already ends in a silent e, we would add just an -s as in horse-horses, or else we would have crazy spellings like X horse-es.) Here are examples of the most common consonant sounds that this rule applies to:
Exercise 1.3
All of the nouns in the following list form their plural in the regular way with a single sibilant sound spelled -s (pronounced /s/ or /z/) or with a separate unstressed syllable spelled -es (pronounced /əz/). Write the entire plural form of the noun in the /s/, /z/, or /əz/ column depending on the pronunciation of the plural -s or -es. (Hint: Say the words out loud. If you whisper or say them to yourself, voiced sounds will be automatically devoiced so they will sound the same as voiceless sounds.)
Singular
form /s/ /z/ /əz/
beach beaches
1. race
2. bay
3. box
4 clock
5. rose
6 mist
7. dish
8. try
9. cottage
10. colleague
11. clause
12. clash
13. hedge
14. phone
15. freeze
16. share
17. duty
18. patch
19. allowance
20. sheet
For a variety of historical reasons, English has some plurals that are formed in an irregular way.
Seven words form their plural by a vowel change alone:
Singular Plural
foot feet*
goose geese
louse lice
man men
mouse mice
tooth teeth
woman women**
Notes: *In addition to the usual plural form feet, the noun foot has a second plural form foot when we use the word to refer to length or measurement. For example:
I bought a six foot ladder.
He is six foot three inches tall.
**Despite the spelling of women, it is the pronunciation of the first syllable rather than the second that changes: woman is pronounced /wo mən/; women is pronounced /wi mən/; the second syllables, -man and - men, are pronounced exactly alike with an unstressed vowel /man/.
Two words retain an old plural ending, -en:
Singular Plural
ox oxen
child children
The long vowel in the singular child also changes to a short vowel in the first syllable of the plural children.
Some words ending in f form their plurals by changing the f to v and adding -es. Here are the most common words that follow this pattern:
Singular Plural
half halves
knife knives
leaf leaves
life lives
loaf loaves
self selves
thief thieves
wolf wolves
Some words have a plural form that is identical to their singular form. Most of these words refer to animals or fish. For example:
Singular Plural
a cod two cod
a deer two deer
a fish two fish
a sheep two sheep
a shrimp two shrimp
a trout two trout
Since the singular and plural forms of these nouns are identical, the actual number of the noun can only be determined by subject-verb agreement or by the use of an indefinite article. For example:
Singular: The deer was standing in the middle of the road.
Plural: The deer were moving across the field.
Singular: I saw a deer in the backyard.
Plural: I saw some deer in the backyard.
If one of these words is used as an object with a definite article, then the number is ambiguous. For example:
Look at the deer! (one deer or many deer?)
Exercise 1.4
The following sentences contain one or more incorrect irregular plurals. Draw a line through each incorrect plural and write the correct form above it.
1. My niece has a farm where she raises disease-resistant varieties of sheeps.
2. Like all farmers, she has a constant problem with mouses and rats.
3. She and her husband run the farm by themselfes, so it is a lot of work for them.
4. There are coyotes and wolfs in the area, but their dogs help keep them away.
5. The coyotes in particular are like thiefs, always waiting and watching.
6. If a coyote gets just a few feets inside the fence, the horses will drive it away.
7. Once they lost some sheeps when some childs left a gate open.
8. Their valley is full of deers, which also support a large population of coyotes.
9. The river in the valley is full of salmons in the fall.
10. Farming is terribly hard work, but we all choose the lifes we want to live.
Noncount nouns
The types of noncount nouns that you are most likely to encounter fall into the semantic categories listed below:
Abstractions: beauty, charity, faith, hope, knowledge, justice, luck, reliability
Food: butter, cheese, chicken, pepper, rice, salt
Liquids and gases: beer, blood, coffee, gasoline, water, air, oxygen
Materials: cement, glass, gold, paper, plastic, silk, wood, wool
Natural phenomena: electricity, gravity, matter, space
Weather words: fog, pollution, rain, snow, wind
With certain exceptions that are discussed below, these noncount nouns are ungrammatical if they are used in the plural. For example:
X Please get some more butters.
X We need to stop and get gasolines.
X The cements on the garage floors are cracking.
X The electricities have been turned off in all the apartments.
X Everyone has noticed the worsening pollutions around major cities.
Many noncount nouns can be used as count nouns with a predictable shift in meaning to something like “different kinds of.” Here are some examples:
gasoline (noncount): The price of gasoline is outrageous. (liquid)
gasoline (count): The station sells three gasolines. (different kinds or grades of gasoline)
cheese (noncount): I love cheese. (food)
cheese (count): The store sells a variety of cheeses. (different kinds of cheese)
Some words can serve as either a noncount noun or a count noun with a slightly different meaning. For example, the noncount noun chicken refers to chicken as a food. As such, we cannot use it with number words or in the plural. However, if we use the word chicken to refer to the living animal, then it is a count noun. For example:
chicken (noncount): Chicken is a heart-healthy meat. (food)
chicken (count): There were a dozen chickens in the yard. (living animals)
Exercise 1.5
All of the underlined nouns in the following sentences are in the plural. Some plurals are correctly used with count nouns. However, many plurals are incorrectly used with noncount nouns. Draw a line through each incorrectly used noncount noun and write the corrected form above it. If the plural is used correctly with a count noun, write OK above the noun.
1. The roads were closed because of the dense fogs.
2. We had to go shopping because we were out of milks again.
3. The team’s disappointments at their losses was obvious.
4. During the operation, the patient needed six pints of bloods.
5. The recent storms have caused us to lose powers for days on end.
6. Many household products are recycled, especially papers and glasses.
7. You need to allow a lot of time so that the paints will dry between coats.
8. Most Americans eat pancakes and waffles with syrups.
9. Most people seem to have an inborn fears of snakes.
10. Many breads in the Middle East are made without yeasts.