Practical models for technical communication - Shannon Kelley 2021

Using information ethically
Technical communication ethics

Many of the projects you’ll encounter as a student and as a professional require the use of existing material. In fact, any time you perform research for a project, whether it’s locating information or including others’ points of view, you’ll likely need to reference source material that you didn’t create. When this happens, you’ll need to be aware of the restrictions on using source material. This relates to ethics because how you acknowledge the work of others can have personal and professional consequences.

Figure 2.4. Example of Misleading Chart. Misleading charts create possible ethical dilemmas.

Figure 2.5. Example of Distorted Information. The three-dimensional version of this pie chart lacks important information to help the user interpret its data.

Two major concerns exist for anyone who uses material they didn’t create: copyright and citations. Copyright is the legal protection that exists for people who own their content. They have legal control over how that content gets used. Any use of that content by someone who isn’t the owner is subject to the law, which requires them to get permission from the owner before they use the content. Citations are the academic convention that gives credit to the owner of content and also provides an ethical way to use content that may or may not be under copyright.

In academic settings, you don’t need permission from the owner to use content because of something called educational fair use, but you always need to use citations to give credit to the content’s owner. In professional settings, you need permission from the content’s owner to use work that is under copyright.

Copyright Basics

If you want to use content that is owned by someone else, you can verify its owner by locating the copyright symbol (figure 2.6).

The name beside the copyright symbol will tell you who the owner is. For example, this textbook is owned by Chemeketa Community College, the parent organization of Chemeketa Press. The copyright symbol on the copyright page at the front of this book states, “© 2021 by Chemeketa Community College.” To use content from this book in a professional setting, you would need to contact Chemeketa Community College and obtain legal permission. It’s your responsibility to get permission for content before you use it.

Other common designations for ownership of content are public domain and Creative Commons. Content in the public domain can be used without permission, but like asking for permission, it’s your responsibility to verify whether the content is free to use or not. The Copyright Office of the U.S. government provides up-to-date information about locating public domain content and verifying its status at www.copyright.gov.

Creative Commons is a nonprofit organization aimed at providing legal and free alternatives to copyright to allow content creators to choose how their work is used or adapted. They have developed a set of licenses that designate what kinds of use are allowed for specific content so that the owner can choose a license that suits their needs. People who opt to use that content are responsible for following the rules of the license the owner chooses. There are four main Creative Commons licenses (figure 2.7).

These licenses can be found in any combination, and their names and symbols are simply listed after the letters “CC” to indicate what the license requires. It is your responsibility to identify which license the content is under and to follow the requirements of that license.

Figure 2.6. Copyright Symbol. A work does not need to have a copyright symbol or be registered with the U.S. Copyright Office to be protected under copyright. Work that you create, called an “original expression” in copyright law, is automatically protected.

Figure 2.7. Four Types of Creative Commons Licenses. Creative Commons licenses provide additional means for content producers to grant permission and receive credit for their work.

Citations

In an academic setting, any content from outside source material must be acknowledged in the form of a source citation. If you’ve taken previous writing or communications courses in college, you should have experience with this. There are many citation styles for academic work, and each style has its own set of specific rules and requirements for what information is included in the citation and how it is formatted in your work.

See Chapter 5 for more on citing sources.

What Should You Cite?

The short answer is you should cite everything you use in your research that you didn’t generate. This is true whether you’re quoting directly or paraphrasing from the source. In technical communication, the chances that you need to quote any source directly are slim to none. You are much more likely to use data from studies, fieldwork, or meta-analyses and reserve direct quotes for instances in which a source states an idea in the best possible way. When you cite sources in your technical document, you are providing the user an opportunity to quickly find and review the original research.

How Should You Cite?

Academic citation standards are field-specific, which is why you will learn several citation styles in college. There are similarities among the styles, but the differences are what make the citation style useful for experts in that field. As a student, it’s a good idea to check with your professors to see which style they expect you to use. Citation styles are updated regularly, so you should also invest in an updated reference guide that provides templates and models to follow for all source types. Most colleges have a preferred reference guide. There are also free online guides like Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL).

Find citation guidance at owl.purdue.edu.

Modern Language Association (MLA) is the format used for literature, languages, and humanities and is one of the two main formats you will use most in college. MLA uses an author/page number in-text citation style with a Works Cited page. This means the information you use from an outside source is identified in the text with the author’s name and the page number of the original source enclosed in parentheses. The information included in parentheses connects to a list of sources at the end of your essay.

Here are a few things to keep in mind about MLA style:

” You are unlikely to use MLA in the workplace because it is a scholarly format.

” You are most likely to use MLA in your English and composition courses because it works well for textual analysis.

” MLA is currently in its 9th edition.

American Psychological Association (APA) is used in behavioral and social sciences and is one of the other main academic styles you can expect to use in college. APA uses the author/date citation style with a reference list. Information from an outside source is followed by parentheses containing the author’s name and the date of publication. The dates are an important part of the APA citation style because the fields that use this style want the reader to be aware of how recent the research is in the paper.

Here are a few things to keep in mind about APA style:

” You may use the APA format in sociology, anthropology, psychology, and some other science courses.

” You will see APA format in science writing and peer-reviewed scientific articles.

” You will encounter APA format in any number of fields, including nursing programs and exercise/fitness professions.

” APA is currently in its 7th edition.

Chicago Manual of Style/Turabian (CMS) is used in the publishing industry for formatting books and citing references. Turabian Style refers to the student version of the CMS style that uses either the author/date/page number format or the (more common) footnote style and a bibliography. This style is used by a wide range of publishers and commonly used by business, history, and fine arts. This textbook utilizes Chicago style.

Here are a few things to keep in mind about Chicago/Turabian style:

” You will see CMS format used in fine arts, business, and history publications.

” You will likely use Turabian style in business and history courses.

” You will encounter CMS format in most textbooks, such as this one.

” Chicago style is currently in its 17th edition.

Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) sets research and citation standards for electrical, electronics, computer science, and computer programming fields. IEEE uses a bracketed number and corresponding reference list set in numerical order.

Here are a few things to keep in mind about IEEE style:

” You are most likely to use IEEE in computer science and programming fields or in electrical engineering.

” The place most people encounter IEEE is Wikipedia.

What does citing your sources have to do with ethics? It may seem like a flaming hoop you need to jump through in academic courses, but this requirement of keeping track of your sources will benefit you in the professional world.

First and foremost, technical communication values accuracy and precision. Your sources of information must be carefully chosen to provide your audience with the best and most recent information. In-text references, followed by a longer description of each source, allow your audience to find and verify your sources. Second, documentation of sources shows your integrity—in other words, it shows that you are responsible with information and meticulous with your recordkeeping. Third, citations demonstrate confidence in your conclusions and reassure the audience that your recommendations are based on data. Finally, citing sources gives credit where credit is due and shows the reader your professional standards.

Case Study

Ethics for Technical Communicators

This case study is an opportunity for you to put into practice what you’ve learned. Part of this chapter focuses on the six ethical principles outlined by the Society for Technical Communications. Look at the following case study to to begin thinking about the kind of technical communicator you want to be and how you want to make decisions when the answer is not clear:

See “Ethics in Action” on page 35.

Let’s take a closer look at ethical principles in context by examining how freelance technical communicator Julia navigates multiple professional environments and demands. As a freelancer, she must determine fair prices for contract work, pay attention to legal and contractual obligations, recognize when to keep information confidential, and weigh her personal values when encountering conflicts of interest.

Consider how Julia applies the six principles of legality, honesty, confidentiality, quality, fairness, and professionalism to her contract work, and then answer the questions that follow.

Legality.

” Julia’s contract job states she must produce or revise three pamphlets using data from a marketing research company. Legally, she can’t use copyrighted material—this must be original work

Honesty

” Julia is tasked with promoting the field of robotics. Her boss wants pamphlets for interested students. Julia researches the career to avoid misinforming students, estimates costs to produce the pamphlets (including work hours), and seeks permission to use attractive photographs owned by a third party before making the proposal to her boss.

Confidentiality

” Julia contracts with medical companies. A client suggests Julia ask for patient information so she can research patient reactions to a drug she has been asked to market. Julia knows she can’t have this conversation with the doctor’s office because it’s a violation of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA).

Quality

” A client contacts Julia about designing promotional materials for a local gym. Julia estimates six hours of initial work and three to five revision hours. She has a design background but limited experience, so she researches fair prices and finds the average rate for experienced designers is about $75 an hour, while someone with her experience charges around $30. Julia provides an estimate of $330 (using the high end of hours she thinks the project will take). She provides documentation on how she reached her estimate.

Fairness

” Julia’s work impressed gym customers, resulting in new clients. She’s approached by a business that supports policies at odds with the volunteer organization where she helps at-risk youth find education and job opportunities. Although she might make some extra money, she politely declines the work, citing the conflict between the business and her volunteer work.

Professionalism

” Julia makes sure to get an early draft or two to her employer or her clients for feedback because she knows it shows professionalism, and the early feedback she receives will save everyone time and money.

Discussion

” Think about the principles and your career or particular field of study. Can you think of an example for each of these principles in your field?

” Can you explain to someone why each of these principles is important in your field?

” How would you adapt these principles to apply to your field of study? What would you add?

Checklist for Ethical Communication

Citations

Have you acknowledged your collaborators?

Have you used the citation style your field of study requires (MLA, APA, other)?

Are your sources clearly and accurately cited?

See “Plain Language Guidelines” (figure 9.5) on page 242.

Equitable Language

Did you avoid exclusive and offensive language?

Does your text adhere to Plain Language rules?

What checkpoints have you enlisted to locate and change ambiguous use of words?

Visual Details

Have you used the most suitable type of visual (pie chart, table, or diagram)?

Did you give credit to your sources and cite all visuals?

Did you explain to the user what information to use from the visual?