PSAT reading strategies—keywords, margin notes, and the big picture summary - PSAT reading passage strategies - PSAT Reading

PSAT/NMSQT Prep 2022 - Eggert M.D., Strelka A. 2022

PSAT reading strategies—keywords, margin notes, and the big picture summary
PSAT reading passage strategies
PSAT Reading

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After this lesson, you will be able to:

· Identify keywords that promote active reading and relate passage text to the questions

· Create short, accurate margin notes that help you research the text efficiently

· Summarize the big picture of the passage

To read and map a passage like this:

This passage is adapted from an article called “Nature’s Tiny Farmers” that appeared in a popular biology magazine in 2018.

1Leafcutter ants are among the most 2ecologically important animals in the 3American tropics. At least forty-seven 4species of leafcutter ants range from 5as far south as Argentina to as far 6north as the southern United States. 7These ants, as their name implies, cut 8sections of vegetation—leaves, flowers, 9and grasses—from an array of plants, 10taking the cut sections back into their 11underground nests. However, the ants 12don’t feed on the vegetation they cut; 13in fact, they’re unable to digest the 14material directly. Instead, they carry 15the fragments into dedicated chambers 16within their nests, where they cultivate 17a particular species of nutritious fungus 18on the cut vegetation. It is this fungus 19that the ants eat and feed to their 20larvae.

21Remarkably, each species of 22leafcutter ant cultivates a different 23species of fungus, and each of these 24fungi grows nowhere but within the 25nests of its own species of leafcutter ant. 26According to entomologist Ted Schultz 27of the Smithsonian National Museum 28of Natural History, “The fungi that 29[the ants] grow are never found in the 30wild, they are now totally dependent 31on the ants.” In other words, over 32millions of years, the ants have actually 33domesticated the fungi, much as we 34humans have domesticated the plants 35we grow for crops.

36The leafcutters’ foraging trails extend 37hundreds of meters throughout the 38landscape. The ants harvest a wide 39range of vegetation but are selective, 40preferring particular plant species and 41picking younger growth to cut. Research 42has also shown that the ants often 43limit how much they cut from a single 44plant, possibly in response to chemical 45defenses the cut plant produces. In this 46way, the amount of damage they cause 47to individual plants is limited.

48Leafcutters are probably the most 49important environmental engineers 50in the areas they occupy. A single 51leafcutter nest can extend as far as 5221 meters underground, have a central 53mound 30 meters in diameter with 54branches extending out to a radius of 5580 meters, contain upwards of 1,000 56individual chambers, and house up 57to eight million ants. Where they are 58present, leafcutters are responsible 59for up to 25 percent or more of the 60total consumption of vegetation by all 61herbivores.

62Alejandro G. Farji-Brener of 63Argentina’s National Scientific and 64Technical Research Council and 65Mariana Tadey of the National 66University of Comahue wanted to 67better understand how the activities of 68leafcutter ants influence soil conditions. 69To do so, they analyzed the data from 70a large number of previous studies to 71determine how various environmental 72factors play into the ants’ behavior and 73their effects on local ecology.

74The researchers found that 75overall soil quality and fertility are 76dramatically higher where leafcutters 77are present. The ants affect the 78soil in two ways: first, the physical 79shifting of the soil that occurs as a 80consequence of nest construction 81improves soil porosity, drainage, 82and aeration; additionally, the ants’ 83fungus-cultivating activities generate 84enormous amounts of plant waste, 85which the ants carry away, either into 86specialized chambers within the nest or 87to dedicated refuse piles outside. 88In fact, this movement of organic matter 89may be the largest performed by any 90animal in the environment. This 91transfer of huge volumes of organic 92material results in greatly enriched soil, 93with nutrient levels that are orders of 94magnitude higher than in areas where 95the ants are not present.

96The researchers also determined 97that seeds germinate more easily and at 98higher rates in these soils. Additionally, 99plants grow substantially better in soils 100that have been modified by leafcutters. 101In effect, then, the ants create 102conditions that encourage the growth 103of plants, thereby greatly improving the 104conditions of the landscape in general. 105Furthermore, in areas of disturbance 106or degradation, such as lands that 107have been overgrazed or deforested, 108or those suffering from the effects of 109fire or drought, leafcutters are major 110contributors to the natural restoration 111of healthy plant communities and 112the overall recovery of the land. The 113study concludes that “in terms of 114conservation, ant-nest areas should be 115especially protected... because they 116are hot spots of plant productivity and 117diversity.”

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Relative Nutrient Content of Leafcutter Ant Soils—Ratios of Leafcutter Ant Soils to Control Soil

Nutrient

Nest Soil: Control Soil

Refuse Soil: Control Soil

Nitrogen

1.4:1

33:1

Phosphorus

2.0:1

48:1

Potassium

1.4:1

49:1

Carbon

4.2:1

47:1

Calcium

1.9:1

29:1

Magnesium

2.2:1

15:1

You’ll need to know this:

· PSAT Reading passages are preceded by short blurbs that tell you about the author and source of the passage.

· There are three categories of keywords that reveal an author’s purpose and point of view and that unlock the passage’s structure:

o Opinion and Emphasis—words or phrases that signal that the author finds a detail noteworthy (e.g., especially, crucial, important, above all) or has an opinion about it (e.g., fortunately, disappointing, I suggest, it seems likely)

o Connection and Contrast—words or phrases that suggest that a subsequent detail continues the same point (e.g., moreover, in addition, also, further) or that indicate a change in direction or point of difference (e.g., but, yet, despite, on the other hand)

§ In some passages, these keywords may show steps in a process or developments over time (e.g., traditionally, in the past, recently, today, first, second, finally, earlier, since).

o Evidence and Example—words or phrases that indicate an argument (the use of evidence to support a conclusion), either the author’s or someone else’s (e.g., thus, therefore, because), or that introduce an example to clarify or support another point (e.g., for example, such as, to illustrate)

· PSAT experts read strategically, jotting down brief, accurate, and useful margin notes next to each paragraph.

· Expert test takers summarize the passage as a whole by paying attention to its big picture:

o Main Idea—the author’s primary conclusion or overall takeaway

o Author’s Purpose—the author’s reason for writing the passage

§ Express this as a verb (e.g., to explain, to evaluate, to argue,to refute)

READING PASSAGE AND QUESTION STRATEGY

Why read the passage before reading the questions?

Each PSAT Reading passage is accompanied by 9 or 10 questions. One or two of the questions may ask about the passage as a whole. The others will ask about specific paragraphs, details, or arguments within the passage. PSAT experts use deliberate Reading strategies to answer all of the questions quickly and accurately, with a minimum of rereading.

You’ll need to do this:

THE PSAT READING PASSAGE STRATEGY

· Extract everything you can from the pre-passage blurb

· Read each paragraph actively

· Summarize the passage’s big picture

Extract everything you can from the pre-passage blurb:

· Quickly prepare for the passage by unpacking the pre-passage blurb.

o What does the title and date of the original book or article tell you about the author and her purpose for writing?

o What information can you glean from the source (nonfiction book, novel, academic journal, etc.)?

o Is there any other information that provides context for the passage?

Read each paragraph actively:

· Note keywords (circling or underlining them may help) and use them to focus your reading on:

o The author’s purpose and point of view

o The relationships between ideas

o The illustrations or other support provided for passage claims

KEYWORDS

Why pay attention to keywords?

Keywords indicate opinions and signal structure that make the difference between correct and incorrect answers on PSAT questions. Consider this question:

With which one of the following statements would the author most likely agree?

1. Coffee beans that grow at high altitudes typically produce dark, mellow coffee when brewed.

2. Coffee beans that grow at high altitudes typically produce light, acidic coffee when brewed.

To answer that based on a PSAT passage, you will need to know whether the author said:

Type X coffee beans grow at very high altitudes and so produce a dark, mellow coffee when brewed.

That would make choice (1) correct. But if the author instead said:

Type X coffee beans grow at very high altitudes but produce a surprisingly dark, mellow coffee when brewed.

Then choice (2) would be correct. The facts in the statements did not change at all, but the correct answer to the PSAT question would be different in each case because of the keywords the author chose to include.

· As you read, jot down brief, accurate margin notes that will help you research questions about specific details, examples, and paragraphs.

o Paraphrase the text (put it into your own words) as you go.

o Ask “What’s the author’s point and purpose?” for each paragraph.

MARGIN NOTES

Why jot down notes next to each paragraph?

PSAT Reading is an open-book test. The answer is always in the passage. Margin notes help you zero in on the details and opinions you need to answer questions like these:

As used in line 32, “erased” most nearly means

In the context of the passage as a whole, the question in lines 72—74 primarily functions to help the author

The passage most strongly implies which of the following statements about the Great Recession?

In the third paragraph (lines 52—74), the most likely purpose of the author’s discussion of the “gig economy” is to

Summarize the passage’s big picture:

· At the end of the passage, pause for a few seconds to summarize the passage’s big picture to prepare for Global questions. Ask yourself:

o “What is the main idea of the entire passage?”

o “Why did the author write it?”

THE BIG PICTURE

Why summarize the passage’s big picture?

Summarizing the big picture prepares you to answer Global questions such as the following:

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage?

The passage primarily serves to

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Graph: The caption indicates that this graph refers to “Nutrient Ratio: Refuse Soil/Control Soil.” The bars of the graph represent various nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, etc). So, the longer a bar, the more that nutrient is present in refuse soil when compared to control soil.

Relative Nutrient Content of Leafcutter Ant Soils— Ratios of Leafcutter Ant Soils to Control Soil

Nutrient

Nest Soil: Control Soil

Refuse Soil: Control Soil

Nitrogen

1.4:1

33:1

Phosphorus

2.0:1

48:1

Potassium

1.4:1

49:1

Carbon

4.2:1

47:1

Calcium

1.9:1

29:1

Magnesium

2.2:1

15:1

Table: The table compares “leafcutter ant” soils to “control” soils (soils that leafcutter ants did not impact). On the left are the ratios of nutrients in nest soil to control soil. All of the nutrients are present in greater amounts in the nest soil than in the control. On the right are the ratios of nutrients in refuse soil to control soil. The nutrients are present in even greater amounts in the refuse soil than in the nest soil. Leafcutter ants increase the amount of these nutrients in their nest soil, and increase it even more in their refuse soil. The rightmost column of the table includes the same data as depicted visually in the graph.

Charts and Graphs in PSAT Reading

· What information does the graphic contain?

· Why has the author included the graphic?

· Which paragraph(s) does this information relate to?

· Does the graphic display any trends or relationships that support a point made in the passage?

In the Reading section, you will not be asked to perform calculations from the data in graphs. You will be asked how they relate to the passage and which claims or arguments they support or refute.

BIG PICTURE

Main Idea: Leafcutter ants are impressive environmental engineers with profound and positive effects on their environments.

Author’s Purpose: To describe the range, nests, and fungus cultivation of the ants and to summarize the research on how they alter and improve their environments

Now, try another passage on your own. Use the PSAT Reading strategies and tactics you’ve been learning to read and map this passage as quickly and accurately as you can.

Try on Your Own

Directions: Actively read and map the following passage by 1) circling or underlining keywords (from the Emphasis and Opinion, Connection and Contrast, or Evidence and Example categories), 2) jotting down brief, accurate margin notes that reflect good paraphrases of each paragraph, and 3) summing up the big picture. When you’re done, compare your work to that of a PSAT expert in the Answers and Explanations at the end of the chapter.

This passage, about the decline of the Norse colonies that once existed in Greenland, is from a comprehensive 2015 research report examining this anthropological mystery.

1In 1721, the Norwegian missionary 2Hans Egede discovered that the two 3known Norse settlements on Greenland 4were completely deserted. Ever since, 5the reasons behind the decline and 6eventual disappearance of these people 7have been greatly debated. Greenland, 8established by the charismatic outlaw 9Erik the Red in about 986 c.e., was 10a colony of Norway by 1000 c.e., 11complete with a church hierarchy 12and trading community. After several 13relatively prosperous centuries, the 14colony had fallen on hard times and 15was not heard from in Europe, but it 16wasn’t until Egede’s discovery that the 17complete downfall of the settlement was 18confirmed.

19Throughout the nineteenth century, 20researchers attributed the demise of 21the Norse colonies to war between 22the colonies and Inuit groups. This 23is based largely on evidence from 24the work Description of Greenland, 25written by Norse settler Ivar Bardarson 26around 1364, which describes strained 27relationships between the Norse settlers 28and the Inuits who had recently come 29to Greenland. However, because there is 30no archaeological evidence of a war or 31a massacre, and the extensive body of 32Inuit oral history tells of no such event, 33modern scholars give little credence to 34these theories.

35New theories about the reason 36for the decline of the Norse colonies 37are being proposed partially because 38the amount of information available 39is rapidly increasing. Advances in 40paleoclimatology, for example, have 41increased the breadth and clarity of 42our picture of the region. Most notably, 43recent analyses of the central Greenland 44ice core, coupled with data obtained 45from plant material and sea sediments, 46have indicated severe climate changes 47in the region that some are now calling 48a “mini ice age.” Such studies point 49toward a particularly warm period 50for Greenland that occurred between 51the years 800 c.e. and 1300 c.e., which 52was then followed—unfortunately 53for those inhabiting even the most 54temperate portions of the island—by a 55steady decline in overall temperatures 56that lasted for nearly 600 years. The 57rise and fall of the Norse colonies in 58Greenland, not surprisingly, roughly 59mirrors this climate-based chronology. 60Researchers have also found useful 61data in a most surprising place—fly 62remains. The insect, not native to the 63island, was brought over inadvertently 64on Norse ships. Flies survived in the 65warm and unsanitary conditions of the 66Norse dwellings and barns and died out 67when these were no longer inhabited. 68By carbon dating the fly remains, 69researchers have tracked the occupation 70of the settlements and confirmed that 71the human population began to decline 72around 1350 c.e.

73Changing economic conditions 74likely also conspired against the 75settlers. The colonies had founded a 76moderately successful trading economy 77based on exporting whale ivory, 78especially important given their need 79for the imported wood and iron that 80were in short supply on the island. 81Unfortunately, inexpensive and plentiful 82Asian and African elephant ivory 83flooded the European market during 84the fourteenth century, destroying 85Greenland’s standing in the European 86economy. At the same time, the trading 87fleet of the German Hanseatic League 88supplanted the previously dominant 89Norwegian shipping fleets. Because the 90German merchants had little interest 91in the Norse colonists, Greenland soon 92found itself visited by fewer and fewer 93ships each year until its inhabitants 94were completely isolated by 1480 c.e.

95Cultural and sociological factors may 96have also contributed to the demise of 97the Norse settlements. The Inuit tribes, 98while recent immigrants to Greenland, 99had come from nearby areas to the 100west and had time-tested strategies to 101cope with the severe environment. The 102Norse settlers, however, seem to have 103viewed themselves as fundamentally 104European and did not adopt Inuit 105techniques. Inuit apparel, for example, 106was far more appropriate for the 107cold, damp environment; the remains 108from even the last surviving Norse 109settlements indicate a costume that 110was undeniably European in design. 111Likewise, the Norse settlers failed to 112adopt Inuit hunting techniques and 113tools, such as the toggle harpoon, which 114made it possible to capture calorie-rich 115seal meat. Instead, the Norse relied on 116the farming styles that had been so 117successful for their European ancestors, 118albeit in a radically different climate. It 119seems likely that this stubborn cultural 120inflexibility prevented the Norse 121civilization in Greenland from adapting 122to increasingly severe environmental 123and economic conditions.