Writing Smart, 3rd edition - Princeton Review 2018

Grammar basics: a quick review

Grammar: What you need to know

A common pitfall when it comes to writing is grammar. Those of you who have been out of school for some time may have forgotten some or most of the rules at one point drilled into you by your English teachers. And even if you’re a student and are very familiar with grammatical conventions, you may find it difficult to follow them in an increasingly digital world ruled by texting and emojis. So, we get it. But when it comes to formal writing, good grammar is key. Incorrect grammar in writing is distracting; moreover, it can almost immediately discredit you to your reader. So if you want your reading audience to remain engaged and take you seriously, you’re going to have to have a solid, fundamental knowledge of parts of speech and punctuation and how to use them correctly. Let’s get started.

First up, here is a list of terms with which you should be familiar. Parts of speech and punctuation are the building blocks of writing. Every time you write, you are working with parts of speech, arranging your sentences according to parts of speech. This chapter is designed to broaden your already intuitive knowledge of grammar and punctuation and make it a little more useful to you as you set out to write.

Take a moment to read through the following terms and circle any that you feel you need to review. These terms are also found in the glossary at the end of this book.

Adjective: A word that modifies a noun or pronoun

Adverb: A word that modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb

Clause: A group of words that contains a subject and a predicate

Colon: A punctuation mark used to introduce a list or amplify the preceding thought

Comma: A punctuation mark used to separate words within a sentence

Dependent Clause: A clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence

Independent Clause: A clause that can stand alone as a sentence

Modifier: A word or group of words in a sentence that limits or qualifies another word or group of words

Noun: A word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea

Parentheses: Punctuation marks used to set off a qualifying or explanatory remark from the rest of the text

Phrase: A group of words that does not contain a subject and verb but which functions as a conceptual unit within a sentence

Pronoun: A word that replaces a noun or noun phrase

Semicolon: A punctuation mark used to separate independent clauses

Sentence: A grammatically independent group of words, usually containing a subject and a predicate, that expresses a statement, command, request, exclamation, etc.

Subject: The person, place, thing, or idea that the sentence is about; the subject performs the action or does the “being”

Verb: A word that expresses action or a state of being

Parts of speech: the basics

Determining parts of speech is nothing more than determining the function particular words have in a sentence. Different words, or groups of words, have different functions, and you will be able to avoid making grammatical errors if you are a whiz at determining parts of speech. To build something, you need proper materials; to understand parts of speech is to understand the materials of making sentences—but more on that in Chapter 3. For now, let’s go over some basic parts of speech in more detail.

Nouns

Nouns are “person, place, thing, and idea” words. It is easy to see that objects are nouns, and qualities and ideas can be nouns too—love is a noun, as is egotism, and spoilage. Nouns can be singular, as when you are talking about one thing (box), or plural, when you’re talking about more than one thing (boxes). Being able to spot nouns is important because the subject of a sentence is always a noun or a pronoun (we’ll cover pronouns in a little while).

Quick Quiz #1

Circle the nouns in the following paragraph. Answers can be found on this page.

Jimmy Brooks and Casey Jones are the hosts of a wonderful free showcase at Blast Masters Club featuring the best musicians based in the Kansas City area. Although they don’t play any instruments, Jimmy and Casey are great at off-the-cuff banter. The musicians featured are the cream of the crop, and the headliner is a lady who uses the stage name Tooth Fairy. She is a hard rocker who hails from New York City and she never lets you forget that she’s from the Big Apple. She has known Jimmy and Casey for over fifteen years, and they typically all spend Sundays hanging out at a diner ten minutes away from the club.

Rules for nouns

1. If you aren’t sure whether a word is a noun, put a or the in front of the word. If it makes sense, then the word is a noun; for example, a mistake, the mood, the danger.

2. Proper nouns are names of people, specific places, and particular groups and events. Proper nouns are always capitalized: LeBron James; Paris, France; Central Intelligence Agency; the War of the Roses.

3. Often, a word or group of words that looks like a verb acts as a noun. For example:

Skiing is Wanda’s favorite sport.

To know me is to love me.

Adjectives

Adjectives are descriptive words. Gorgeous, hideous, smelly, baggy, and pathetic are all adjectives. They describe or modify nouns. Less obviously descriptive are adjectives that show which one or how many: that man, his dessert, enough meatloaf, every dog. See how the adjectives clarify which noun (or how many of each noun) is being talked about?

Rules for Adjectives

1. An adjective like smart can be relative; in other words, you aren’t necessarily smart or not smart—you can be smart to degrees. To show this kind of comparison, there are three forms of adjectives:

· If you are comparing two things, form the comparative by adding —er to the adjective.

· If you are comparing more than two things, form the superlative by adding —est to the adjective.

· Some adjectives do not lend themselves to adding —er or —est to the stem. In these cases, use more as the comparative and most as the superlative. Your ear should be able to discern with form is appropriate. When in doubt, use more or most.

2. Some adjectives are absolute—you either have the quality or you don’t. So there is no comparative or superlative form for adjectives like complete, final, square, meaningless, superior, dead, unique, universal, and so on.

3. Adjectives that describe how much or how many are often misused. If you are writing about something that you can count individually, use fewer or many. If you are writing about something that cannot be counted individually, use less, a lot of, or much.

Quick Quiz #2

Circle the appropriate adjective. Answers can be found on this page.

1.Last night I ate (fewer, less) marshmallows than Wanda did.

2.She considered the marshmallow to be (a perfect, the most perfect) food.

3.In rating marshmallows and oysters, Wanda liked marshmallows (best, better).

4.“A marshmallow is (spongier than, the spongiest of) any other food,” she said.

5.Although she ate (many, much) marshmallows, she ate (fewer, less) Jell-O.

Verbs

Without a verb, you have no sentence. Verbs express either action (like hit, sprint, or touch) or state of being (like am, seems, will be). The first kind of verb is called an action verb; the second kind is called a linking verb. This distinction is not anything to worry about; we only mention it to show the various functions of different kinds of verbs. Put another way, a verb tells what the subject is doing or what is being done to the subject, even if the subject is doing nothing more than just existing. The rules for verbs chiefly concern two characteristics: tense and agreement with the subject.

Tense

The tense of a verb places the action at a particular time. The English language has twelve tenses altogether, so we are able to be quite precise in explaining when something happened. Although memorizing the names of the tenses is not terribly important, you do want to understand which moment in time each tense refers to.

The six basic tenses are:

1. present: I eat

2. present perfect: I have eaten

3. past: I ate

4. past perfect: I had eaten

5. future: I will eat

6. future perfect: I will have eaten

Now let’s take a look at what moment in time each tense indicates.

Present: The “now” tense. Use present tense if…

· The action is happening right now: I am hungry (right now).

· The action happens habitually: I am hungry every afternoon.

· You are stating a fact: Bob Dylan is a great songwriter.

· You want dramatic effect in fiction or in expository writing: The phone rings. Fitzgerald is more interesting than Hemingway. (This use of the present is called the historical present.)

· You are speaking about the future: She leaves for Paris in the morning.

Present Perfect: Use present perfect if…

· The action started in the past and continues into the present moment: I have eaten sixteen cookies so far this week.

· The action was finished at some point earlier in time but affects the present: I have eaten all of the pie, so there isn’t any left for you.

Past: The “before” tense. Use the past tense if…

· The action happened in the past and does not continue to happen: I ate it.

Past Perfect: The “even before before” tense. Use the past perfect if…

· You are discussing an action already in the past and you need to make clear that another action happened even earlier. Think of past perfect as the double past tense: Before I ate your dessert, I had eaten 87 doughnuts. (Ate is past tense, had eaten is past perfect.)

· You have an “if” clause followed by the conditional (would) and the present perfect: If I had thought about it first, I would not have eaten all of those doughnuts.

Future: The Star Trek tense. All statements using future tense have not yet happened—they are in the future. Use the future tense if…

· You are writing about something that will happen in the future: Tomorrow I will go on a diet.

Future Perfect: This tense combines future and past—and it doesn’t come up very often. Use future perfect if…

· An action is finished before a specified time in the future: By next week, I will have lost ten pounds.

In addition to these six tenses are the continuous (or progressive) forms of all six. As with the whole subject of tenses, the names of the tenses are not important—what is important is being able to use the right tense in the right situation.

The continuous tenses use the —ing verb, or present participle: I am eating, I was eating, I will be eating. Use the continuous form if you want to show continuous action: I will be dieting for eternity.

The past participle is the form of the verb that goes with have to form the present perfect: have walked, have sworn, have loved.

One last term you should know concerning verbs is the infinitive, which is simply the “to” form of the verb, as in to go, to do, to see.

Deciding on the right verb form presents no problem if the verb is regular. A regular verb is conjugated like any other regular verb:

I move, I moved, I am moving, I have moved

I walk, I walked, I am walking, I have walked

The trouble arises when the verb is irregular, meaning it doesn’t fit into the pattern of an added —ed to make the past tense and past participle: I walked, I have walked. Many irregular verbs—like the verb to be— are used so frequently that their irregularity is not a problem, because you know the principal parts by heart, even if you’d never heard of the term principal parts before opening this book.

Principal parts

present, past, past participle

bear, bore, borne

blow, blew, blown

bring, brought, brought (not brang)

creep, crept, crept

dive, dived, dived (dove only informally; not diven)

drag, dragged, dragged

draw, drew, drawn

drink, drank, drunk

freeze, froze, frozen

get, got, got, gotten

grow, grew, grown

hang, hung, hung (as in I hung a picture on the wall)

hang, hanged, hanged (as in The man was hanged at sunrise)

lay, laid, laid (as in I laid the book on the bed)

lend, lent, lent

lie, lay, lain (as in I have lain in bed all day)

ring, rang, rung

shake, shook, shaken

shrink, shrank, shrunk, shrunk, shrunken

sink, sank, sunk (not sinked)

slay, slew, slain

spring, sprang, sprung, sprung

swear, swore, sworn

swim, swam, swum

tear, tore, torn

weep, wept, wept

wring, wrung, wrung

Quick Quiz #3

Write the correct verb form in the blanks below. The verb to use is given in the infinitive form at the end of the sentence. Answers can be found on this page.

1.Today Lulu ______ for Alfred to call her. (to wait)

2.Yesterday Lulu ______ at Alfred because he ______ her birthday. (to scream, to forget)

3.Tomorrow, if he is smart, Alfred ______ her bunches of flowers. (to give)

4.If he ______, he would not be in so much trouble. ( to remember)

5.By next week Alfred and Lulu ______ fun again. (to have)

Subject-verb agreement

The other main rules concerning verbs involve agreement with their subjects. The number one rule of subject-verb agreement is

Singular subjects take singular verbs, and plural subjects take plural verbs.

Here are four easy steps for getting this right when it comes to writing:

1. Find the main verb. Don’t be distracted by verbal phrases, which are verb-like elements acting as another part of speech.

2. Ask yourself: Who or what is doing the action? The answer to this question will be the subject. The subject does not necessarily come before the verb, and there may be all kinds of distracting modifiers and prepositional phrases in between the subject and the verb. Bracket such phrases so that you can see the subject more clearly.

3. Determine if the subject is singular or plural. Most of the time, a plural subject will end in —s, though there are plenty of exceptions. You may also need to consider the intended meaning of the word.

4. Match the subject. If your subject is singular, match it with the correct verb. If your subject is plural, match they with the correct verb. You should be able to conjugate this correctly just using your ear.

Basic Rules for Subject-Verb Agreement

· Subjects connected by and are plural.

Bob and Sam are here.

· Certain expressions (as well as, including, together with, with, etc.) logically seem to change a singular subject to plural. They don’t. These expressions will be set off from the subject by commas.

Bob, along with Sam and Harry, is going on vacation.

· Singular subjects connected by conjunctions such as either-or, neither-nor, and nor stay singular.

Neither Bob nor Harry is able to get up from the sofa.

· If a singular and plural subject are connected by either-or, neither-nor, or nor, the verb should agree with the subject closes to it.

Neither Bob nor the others were able to get up from the sofa.

Neither the others nor Bob was able to get up from the sofa.

Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs (run quickly), adjectives (often happy), or other adverbs (too quickly). Adverbs frequently end in —ly, but the —ly isn’t a requirement. A test for determining adverbs is to think about function: adverbs tend to tell where, when, or how.

Possible Confusion: Adjectives also modify, so it is easy to confuse them with adverbs. And even more confusingly, some words sometimes act as adjectives and sometimes act as adverbs, depending on the sentence and the circumstance. Ask yourself which word is being described: adjectives always modify nouns or pronouns, an adverbs never do.

Rules for Adverbs

1. Adverbs follow the same form as adjectives when they are used to make comparisons.

2. In placing adverbs, follow this simple rule: put the adverb as close as possible to the word being modified. Otherwise, you may end up giving your sentence a meaning other than the one you intend. For example:

My headache was only temporary.

Only my headache was temporary.

How does the meaning of the sentence change when the adverb is moved?

Pronouns

Pronouns are a subgroup of nouns; they act as stand-ins for nouns. There are eight categories of pronouns, but a few simple rules govern their use. First, let’s go over some terms.

· Case refers to the function of the pronoun in the sentence. The three cases are nominative, objective, and possessive. Think of these as subject pronouns, object pronouns, and ownership pronouns.

· Number makes a pronoun either singular or plural.

· Gender specifies whether the person a pronoun refers to is a man or a woman.

· An antecedent is the noun (usually appearing earlier in the sentence or paragraph than the pronoun) that the pronoun stands in for in the sentence.

Personal pronouns

Subject pronouns (nominative case): I, you, he, she, it, we, and they. All of these serve as the subject of a verb.

It is alive! (It is the subject of is)

Wanda knew exactly what she should do. (she is the subject of should do)

Object pronouns (objective case): me, you, him, her, it, us, them. These are always the object of the verb, preposition, or infinitive—never the subject. In other words, object pronouns are having something done to them, rather than doing the action themselves.

Wanda showered him with insults. (The him isn’t doing anything—he’s receiving the insults, not showering them.)

He wanted her to go to a movie with him. (He is the subject of wanted; her is the object of wanted; him is the object of the preposition with.)

Ownership pronouns (possessive case): mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs. They are used to show ownership, answering the question “Whose?”

The dog was hers. (Whose dog? Her dog)

There are many other types of pronouns, including mirror pronouns, relative pronouns, question pronouns, pointing pronouns, and indefinite pronouns, all of which are beyond the focus of this book For more pronoun help, we encourage you to check out Grammar Smart, our guide for all things grammar.

Prepositions

Prepositions express relationships between other words, usually nouns, including relationships of time or space. In, of, to, and with are all prepositions. A helpful trick to determine whether a word is a preposition is to place it before “the fence.”

Beyond the fence, past the fence, over the fence, under the fence, of the fence, across the fence—all of these constructions make some kind of sense, so all the italicized words are prepositions, just doing their job: defining relationships. “The fence” is the object of the preposition.

Other prepositions include:

· across

· after

· at

· as

· before

· between

· by

· for

· from

· in

· like

· of

· on

· over

· through

· to

· under

· until

· up

· with

Rules for prepositions

1. Use between when you’re writing about two things or groups; use among for more than two things.

Sydney couldn’t decide between the motorcycle and the Jet Ski.

The lottery prize was divided among the three winners.

2. A commonly heard grammatical rule is: don’t end a sentence with a proposition. Well, maybe, maybe not. If you want to sound formal—for a paper at school or a memo at work—put the preposition in the middle of the sentence and add a word such as which or whom.

I picked up a rock with which to hit him.

As opposed to the more informal,

I picked up a rock to hit him with.

The content of the sentence may indicate the better choice. If putting the preposition in the middle of the sentence sounds awkward, just leave it at the end.

Quick Quiz #4

Choose the prepositional phrases in the following passage. Answers can be found on this page.

Billy was not exactly Mr. Popularity at school. Like many American schools, Hoover High was divided into cliques: the jocks and cheerleaders, the artsy people, ruffians, and timid people. Billy was a member of none of them; he was in his own clique, which is an accomplishment in itself, since a clique, by definition, is a group. In fact, Billy was not just Billy, because he was destined for something more dramatic than anything even the theater people could ever have imagined. He was not just Billy, Young Teen. He was, in some hidden way, being prepared for a visit from the alien.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions connect words or parts of sentences—conjoin means to join together. There are three categories of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions.

Also known as matchmaking conjunctions, coordinating conjunctions connect equal parts of sentences. In other words, they connect words to words, phrases to phrases, and clauses to clauses.

Wanda and Max were late to the party. (noun to noun)

Wanda spent the day playing the sax or walking the dog. (phrase to phrase)

Max hated his job, but he couldn’t afford to quit. (clause to clause)

Coordinating conjunctions:

and

or

but

for

nor

so

yet

Correlative conjunctions, or seesaw conjunctions, connect equal parts together. The difference between these and coordinating conjunctions is that correlative conjunctions are really two conjunctions in one.

Either Wanda or Max would get promoted.

Wanda wanted not only fame and riches but also love.

Correlative conjunctions:

both-and

either-or

neither-nor

not only-but also

Finally, subordinating conjunctions, also known as linking conjunctions, connect dependent (subordinate) clauses with the independent, or main, clause. Subordinate clauses act as nouns or adverbs.

Max quit his job because he was bored.

He later realized he should have waited until he had a new job.

Now he had to decide what to do next.

Because he was bored answers the question Why did Max quit? so the clause is functioning as an adverb. Until he had a new job answers the question How long should Max have waited? so it, too, is an adverb clause. What to do next answers the question What did Max have to decide? so it is a noun clause. These clauses aren’t sentences themselves—they can’t stand alone. They need to be connected to the main clauses Max quit his job and He later realized he should have waited. The linking conjunction acts as the link, connecting the subordinate clause to the main clause.

Subordinating conjunctions:

after

although as

as if

as long as

because

before

but that

even if

except that

ever since

if

if only

in case

just as

since

unless

until

when

whenever

where

wherever

while

Articles

Articles introduce nouns: the is a definite article, a and an are indefinite articles. Try using them in a sentence to understand the distinction between definite and indefinite.

A mouse could be any mouse, anywhere.

The mouse specifies definitely—the mouse in my room, for example.

Articles have a simple function—to point out, or introduce, a noun. Think of them as adjectives, since they are really describing the nouns they introduce.

Punctuation: the basics

It’s time to deal with those tiny scratch-marks known as punctuation. Like syntax, punctuation can be part of a writer’s style; in some instances, the rules are fuzzy enough that a writer can choose his or her manner of punctuating to suit his or her purpose. Hemingway, to go back to our example in the introduction, was a big fan of the period. Simple sentence, period. Henry James, on the other hand, needed dozens of semicolons and thousands of commas, parentheses, and dashes just to get through one sentence.

The purpose of punctuation is to make the act of reading your sentences easier and to make the movement of the eye across the page smoother. The purpose of punctuation is not to draw attention to itself—you want the reader to pay attention to what you have written, not to the placement of commas. Try to cultivate a natural, easygoing punctuation style. If you happen to read something in which the punctuation seems irritating, take a minute to figure out what, precisely, seems bothersome about it.

This section is not meant to be complete; it covers basic rules, common confusions, and common errors.

The period

The period signals a full stop.

Rules for periods

1. Put a period at the end of a sentence.

2. Put a period after most abbreviations: Mr. Wifflamoo, Mrs. Smith, Pres. Obama, Nov. 12, A.M., etc. Some abbreviations don’t need periods: FBI, NBC, JFK (government organizations, networks, monograms).

3. Put a period outside parentheses if what is enclosed by parentheses is not a complete sentence (like this). (Put a period at the end of a complete sentence enclosed by parentheses.)

4. Put a period inside quotation marks: The sign said “No Admittance.”

The question mark

A question mark signals that the preceding statement is a question.

Rules for question marks

1. Use a question mark at the end of a question sentence.

Does this look like the correct place for a question mark?

Is it love?

2. If the question is a quotation, put quotation marks after the question mark.

He asked, “May I have this dance?”

“How do I look?” she asked.

3. If the question is not part of the quotation, put the question mark after the quotation marks.

What do you think of “No new taxes”?

Do you believe in “an eye for an eye”?

The exclamation point

Exclamation points are used for emphasis! Excitement! Surprise!

Rules for exclamation points

1. Use an exclamation point after an exclamation.

Get lost!

Aha!

We won!

2. Don’t get carried away with exclamation points. The only error generally committed is using an exclamation point to try to give writing more emphasis than it deserves. Use them sparingly!!!

The comma

The comma is the most abused punctuation mark, possibly because writers are sometimes so worried about following rules that they forget to pay attention to the way the words sound when spoken. Commas help a reader understand the rhythm of the sentence. If you are having comma problems, try saying your sentence out loud and listening for natural pauses. The function of a comma is to slow the reader down briefly—to make the reader pause. The omission of a comma can allow phrases and clauses to crash into one another, thereby confusing the reader.

Commas can influence the meaning of your sentence. Consider the following:

Although I wanted to kill Max, I controlled myself.

Although I wanted to kill, Max, I controlled myself.

In the first sentence Max is the person I wanted to kill; in the second sentence I am talking to Max about my desire to kill something else. The comma controls the meaning.

Let’s look at another:

The food tastes terrible, however the cook fixes it.

The food tastes terrible; however, the cook fixes it.

In the first sentence, the food tastes terrible no matter how the cook fixes it. In the second sentence, the cook improves the taste of the food. Again, the comma controls the meaning.

Rules for commas

1. Use a comma to separate two independent clauses connected by conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for.

Bob was usually a quiet man, but he screamed upon entering the room.

The strange man lying under the table appeared to be dead, or just possibly he was only napping.

If the independent clauses are short, you may omit the comma.

The man was still and his foot was bleeding.

His hat was on but his pants were off.

2. Use a comma to separate elements in a list or series; the comma is a substitute for and. Some people omit the final comma, but we prefer to leave it in.

Bob tried to breathe, to keep from fainting, and to remember his first aid.

Next to the man was a bassoon, a water balloon, and a raccoon.

3. Use a comma to separate introductory phrases and clauses from the independent clause.

After catching his breath, Bob squatted next to the man and took his pulse.

When he felt sad, Bob picked up the bassoon and blew.

Although he had never played a bassoon before, he somehow managed to make beautiful music.

If the introductory phrase is short, you may omit the comma.

After dark they stopped playing basketball.

But be careful. Always use a comma if omitting it could cause confusion.

When Bob began to eat, rats ran across the carpet.

Not: When Bob began to eat rats ran across the carpet.

Before leaving, Bob heard the man sneeze.

Not: Before leaving Bob heard the man sneeze.

4. In a series of adjectives, use a comma if the adjectives could also be separated by and.

The nimble, fat raccoon began to poke at the water balloon.

Or: The nimble and fat raccoon…

If the and doesn’t fit, leave out the comma:

The man’s white cotton shirt was balled up in a corner.

Not: The man’s white and cotton shirt…

If this rule seems confusing, try reading the sentence aloud. If you make a slight pause between adjectives, put in commas. Otherwise, leave them out. Another test: if you can change the order of the adjectives, put in commas. For example:

The handsome, brilliant scholar

Or: The brilliant, handsome scholar

The frilly party dress

Not: The party frilly dress

The final comma in a list is called the Oxford comma (or Harvard comma or serial/series comma). Most grammarians have a particular affinity for the Oxford comma due to its ability to clear up ambiguity. Others argue that it’s superfluous because the coordinating conjunction connecting the last two items in a list is enough to keep the parts of the list separate. It’s all a matter of preference. Most people are happy using it, but in some arenas it’s avoided. Journalistic writing discourages use of the serial comma, and British culture tends to shy away as well. However, standard American writing conventions include consistent use of a final comma in a list. Therefore, gauge your audience, make necessary adjustments, and keep ambiguity minimal.

5.Use commas to set off clauses, but don’t use commas for defining clauses. (Quick review: a defining, or restrictive, clause is one that can’t be left out of a sentence. Clauses that don’t define can be lifted from the sentence without changing the meaning. Also, a defining clause specifies which part of a larger group we are talking about.)

Bananas that are green taste tart.

(that are green defines which bananas we mean)

Bananas, which grow in the tropics, do not need refrigeration. (which grow in the tropics refers to all bananas. The clause can be lifted from the sentence without changing the meaning.)

Let’s look at a sentence you could punctuate either way, depending on the meaning.

The men who were tired and hungry began eating sardines. (who were tired and hungry is a defining clause, telling us which men we mean)

The men, who were tired and hungry, began eating sardines. (who were tired and hungry describes all of the men, and doesn’t differentiate these men from other men who weren’t tired and hungry)

6.Words or phrases that interrupt the sentence should be set off by commas.

Now then, let’s get down to work.

“Help me,” he said, before falling down the stairs.

What the candidate promised, in fact, is impossible to achieve.

Hello, I must be going.

7.Use commas to set off an appositive. An appositive is a word or phrase that explains or introduces the noun that precedes it.

Mrs. Bowden, my favorite teacher, is wearing a hat.

Ralphie, the president of the student council, is on probation.

Remember that commas are one way to make your writing clear. Reading your sentences aloud is a very good way to find the natural place for commas, as is inspecting your sentences for ambiguity or confusion.

The semicolon

For some reason, the semicolon is the most feared punctuation mark; it seems to inspire loss of confidence in even the most accomplished writers. The rules for semicolons are simple.

Rules for semicolons

1. Use a semicolon to link two independent clauses.

To give a good party, you must consider the lighting; no one feels comfortable under the bright glare of fluorescent lights.

Note that the two clauses are connected in thought. Also—and this is the thing to understand about semicolons—you could use a comma and a conjunction in place of the semicolon.

To give a good party, you must consider the lighting, since no one feels comfortable under the bright glare of fluorescent lights.

2. Use a semicolon to separate elements in a list if the elements are long or if the elements themselves have commas in them.

To get completely ready for your party, you should clean your house; make sure your old, decrepit stereo works; prepare a lot of delicious, strange food; and expect odd, antisocial, or frivolous behavior on the part of your guests.

3. Semicolons belong outside quotation marks.

One man at the party sat in a corner and read “The Adventures of Bob”; he may have been shy, or he may have found “The Adventures of Bob” too exciting to put down.

The colon

A colon tells a reader to pay attention to what follows.

Rules for colons

1. Use a colon when making a list.

There are four ingredients necessary to a good party: music, lighting, food, and personality.

2. A colon is sometimes used to introduce a quotation or an explanation.

On Saturday President Obama made the following statement: “This country’s economy can be revived!”

3. A colon must follow an independent clause that makes the reader or listener expect more information to follow.

Parentheses

Rules for parentheses

1. Use parentheses to enclose extra material (explanations, asides, and so on) that would otherwise interrupt the flow of the sentence.

If you go skin diving at night (an adventure for only the most experienced divers), you can observe strange and amazing phenomena.

As she whipped the cream (after making sure the ingredients were very cold), she told us she had made mousse only once before.

2. Put a period inside the parentheses if what is inside the parentheses is a complete sentence. (See Rules for Periods, on this page.)

3. Don’t put a comma after the parentheses unless the sentence would require it anyway.

The dash

Dashes can be used in place of a colon or parentheses. Some people feel that dashes signify greater emphasis. Whether you use dashes is your choice—they are optional.

Rules for dashes

1. Use one dash in place of a colon, following the rules for colons.

We finished our tasks in record time—one hour!

Or: We finished our tasks in record time: one hour!

2. You can use dashes instead of parentheses.

If you come to my house—take a left after crossing the bridge—please bring some turnips and an oboe.

Or: If you come to my house (take a left after crossing the bridge) please bring some turnips and an oboe.

The apostrophe

The apostrophe is used to show ownership. Most of the time, it presents no confusion: Bob’s bassoon, the woman’s finger. The tricky part is using an apostrophe when the owner is plural.

Rules for apostrophes

1. If the plural noun doesn’t end in —s, add an apostrophe and —s. (This is the easy part.)

the women’s fingers

the bacteria’s growth

the cat’s hairballs

2. If the plural ends in —s, just add an apostrophe.

the babies’ bottoms

the horses’ hooves

the politicians’ promises

3. If the word is a proper noun that ends in —s, add an apostrophe and an —s. (This is the part people get wrong.)

Yeats’s poem

Ross’s riddle

Chris’s crisis

4. One exception is the possessive of the pronoun it, which is its (no apostrophe). The word it’s (with apostrophe) is the contraction for it is, not the possessive.

We’re giving the robot its weekly check-up today.

Not: We’re giving the robot it’s weekly check-up today.

It’s a beautiful day in the neighborhood.

Not: Its a beautiful day in the neighborhood.

If this strikes you as confusing, notice that the word it is treated similarly to the words he, she, and they. When apostrophes are added to these words, they become contractions: he’s going to the store, she’s going to bed, and they’re going to work. The possessive pronouns do not contain apostrophes: his book, her food, their table, its mountains. If you’re still confused, say the sentence out loud. You’re not giving the robot it is weekly check-up, are you?

The hyphen

A hyphen separates compound words. In etymological evolution, two words may be separate, then joined by a hyphen, then joined together. For instance, week end changed to week-end and then to weekend. The best way to find out about a particular word is to look it up in the dictionary.

Rules for hyphens

1. If the pair of words forms an adjective that comes before the noun, use a hyphen.

well-known felon

first-class work

2. If the adjective pair comes after the noun, you don’t need a hyphen.

His crimes are well known.

His work is always first class.

3. Use a hyphen for fractions acting as adjectives:

He drank one and two-thirds cans of soda.

But not for fractions acting as nouns:

Two thirds of the people have gone home.

4. Use a hyphen to differentiate certain words:

He recollected his adventure in Guam.

He re-collected the money.

She recovered from the flu.

She re-covered the sofa.

Quotation marks

The main problem with quotation marks is knowing whether other punctuation marks belong inside or outside of them. For periods, commas, and question marks, look back in this section to A, B, and C, respectively.

Rules for quotation marks

1. Put quotation marks around direct quotations.

“Here’s Johnny!” said Nicholson.

2. If you have a quote within a quote, put single quotation marks around it.

“He said, ’I can’t live without you.’ ”

“Stop!” said Victor, “or I’ll yodel ’My Wild Irish Rose.’ ”

3. The use of quotation marks to show irony has become tired; avoid it if you can. And never, ever use air quotes.

Quick Quiz #5

Punctuate the following passage. Answers can be found on this page.

Billy had several more visits from the aliens sometimes they ate snacks on his Buick sometimes they played music and danced One alien in particular became Billy’s friend The alien taught Billy some good tricks a foolproof method for shooting foul shots a lip smacking recipe for tadpoles and a way to make his eyes change color at will.

Later in life Billy found himself married with two small children living in a peaceful suburb He said that he couldn’t be happier

You miss the aliens said his wife one night putting the children to bed

She was right His Buick had long ago gone to the scrap heap and the aliens once his friends did not appear anymore Sometimes it made Billy sad but he threw himself into his work as an accountant for a chain of dry cleaners and occasionally he made a little money making bets on his foul-shooting Although he lived a sedate quiet life he always treasured the days of snacking with the aliens.

Emojis

Thanks to text messaging and emailing, emoticons have become quite popular. Before emojis emerged, emoticons (emotional “faces” derived from combinations of punctuation marks and symbols) were used to express emotions in text that might be misinterpreted or confusing. For example, instead of using all capital letters to express anger or frustration, an angry face could simply emphasize the text and convey the mood. All capital letters could mean excitement, as opposed to anger, so if the face is present in the text, confusion is less likely to occur. While using emojis and emoticons is fun and increasingly socially acceptable, you should understand the importance of appropriate use in both personal and professional settings. ()

Personal conversations are fairly open for use of symbols simply because the nature of personal relationships allows playfulness even in serious situations. Professional settings require careful consideration, as use of symbols may portray lack of professionalism or respect. ()

Our suggestion is to consider audience. If you are applying for a job, making a serious statement, or writing to someone with whom you are relatively unfamiliar, steer clear of emojis and other symbols. If your professional relationships are somewhat personal in nature (you’ve worked there a while; you know your colleagues or your boss outside of work), then consider the content of the correspondence and use symbols appropriately. A smiley face at the end of a “Thank you for the delicious teacher appreciation lunch !” is acceptable.

Our best advice is to be careful, not careless, when using emoticons, emojis, or symbols in written correspondence. ()

Writing smart: grammar rules you need to know

Now that we’ve gone over some basic parts of speech, let’s put them in context. The following are a few important rules concerning grammar that we’ve already gone over, as well as rules for punctuation and capitalization that you should always remember. By doing so you can avoid the most common English-language pitfalls!

1.A verb must agree with its subject, regardless of any words that separate the two.

Cheddar cheese, which Mickey serves to his friends at all his parties, is his favorite variety.

Cheddar cheese is a singular noun that requires the singular verb is. The plural words friends and parties within the commas, although potentially confusing, are irrelevant.

2.Pronouns must agree with the nouns they replace; the pronoun they cannot be used with a singular noun to achieve gender neutrality.

INCORRECT: A Harvard student must study hard if they want to succeed.

Student is a singular noun that requires a singular pronoun, not the plural pronoun they. He, she, or he or she would all be correct alternatives in a case wherein the gender of the individual is unknown.

3.Pronouns must have a clear referent and cannot be ambiguous.

INCORRECT: I’m going to wear a coat, since they say it will be cold tonight.

Who precisely are they? We have no idea, so the pronoun is ambiguous and therefore incorrect.

INCORRECT: Laverne and Shirley always fight when she is in a bad mood.

They fight when who is in a bad mood, Laverne or Shirley? We don’t know, so the sentence is incorrect as written.

4.A comma cannot separate two independent clauses.

INCORRECT: I love chocolate, I eat it every chance I get!

Both clauses could stand alone as sentences here, so a comma cannot be used. This error is known as a comma splice. Correct alternatives include dividing the sentence into two sentences with a period, using a semicolon, or adding a conjunction such as and or so (e.g., I love chocolate and I eat it every chance I get!).

5.Two independent clauses must be separated by appropriate punctuation.

I love New England the towns are so charming!

I love New England and the towns are so charming! can both stand alone as sentences, so they must be separated. This error is known as a run-on sentence. Once again, dividing the sentence into two sentences with a period, adding a conjunction, or using a semicolon are correct alternatives (e.g., I love New England; the towns are so charming!).

6.As a general rule, proper nouns should be capitalized and common nouns should be lowercase.

What state do you live in? I live in Florida.

Do you own a cat? Yes, Dolly is my cat (or, more accurately, I am her human).

Do you like to study history? Yes, I took History 301 three times in college.

7.Regular nouns are pluralized by adding an s; an apostrophe and an —s indicates possession.

INCORRECT: The football player’s were running around the field.

CORRECT: The football players were running around the field.

CORRECT: The football player’s helmet saved him from serious injury.

CORRECT: The football players’ helmets saved them from serious injury.

Note that you create the possessive form of the plural noun players simply by adding an apostrophe.

8.Homonyms are not interchangeable.

Although they are pronounced the same way, homonyms have completely different meanings and should never be mistaken for one another. These are a few of the most problematic examples:

your (second-person possessive pronoun)

you’re (contraction of you and are)

You’re going to have to improve your singing if you’re ever going to make it in Hollywood.

its (third-person possessive pronoun)

it’s (contraction of it and is)

It’s a beautiful sight to see a peacock spread its colorful tail feathers.

there (“in or at that place”)

they’re (contraction of they and are)

their (third-person plural possessive pronoun)

The Joneses should quickly move their car over there or else they’re surely going to get a ticket.

Now it’s time to put your new knowledge to the test in the following series of drills. Answers and explanations are provided at the end of the chapter.

Drill 1

Choose the best answer. If you don’t find an error, choose (A).

1.Gomez thought Pinky’s hairstyle was the most unique, but whom had designed her hideous dress?

A)No change

B)was the most unique, but who designed

C)to be the most unique, but whom had designed

D)was unique, but who had been designing

E)was unique, but who had designed

2.The dresses which hung on the rack were made for Pinky and I.

A)No change

B)which hung on the rack were made for Pinky and me

C)that were hanging on the rack having been made for Pinky and I

D)that hung on the rack were made for Pinky and me

E)hanged on the rack and they were made for me and Pinky

3.The one criteria you must meet to dress well is knowing what cut is right for one’s body.

A)No change

B)To dress well, the one criteria you must meet is to know what cut is right for your body.

C)In dressing well, the one criterion you must meet is knowing what cut is right for one’s body.

D)To dress well, the one criterion you must meet is to know what cut is right for your body.

E)The one criterion you must meet, for dressing well, is knowing what cut is right for your body.

4.In 1978, a peak of nonfashion, great amounts of people wear polyester jackets.

A)No change

B)great amounts of people were wearing

C)great numbers of people wore

D)a great amount of people wore

E)large numbers of people are wearing

5.Now that it is 2018, pumps and tight jeans will be back on the runway, but her and me have less of these retro items in our closets.

A)No change

B)will be back on the runway, but she and me will have fewer of these

C)are back on the runway, but she and I have fewer of these

D)are being back on the runway, but she and I have less of these

E)are back on the runway, but her and I have fewer of these

Drill 2

Circle the error. If you find no error, circle (E).

1.The novelist, the most talented_(A) of the two writers who_(B) came over for dinner, slipped_(C) on a tennis ball that was lying_(D) on the rug in the hallway. No change_(E)

2.The screenwriter was deliriously happy_(A) to see_(B) that Pinky and Bob had began_(C) to cook the cabbage and grill_(D) the steaks. No change_(E)

3.That the writers_(A) had not been able to afford anything but_(B) beans and rice was evident in their delight_(C) at sitting down to the feast, and in the dangerous speed with which_(D) they inhaled their food. No change_(E)

4.The argument among_(A) the two writers was_(B) not a scholarly dispute; they were simply trying to divide_(C) the last piece of cake between them_(D). No change_(E)

5.The novelist, who modeled himself_(A) after Hemingway, wrestled the cake away from the screenwriter, who was known for_(B) constant_(C) changing artistic direction; sometimes he wrote like_(D) Godard, and sometimes like Spielberg. No change_(E)

Drill 3

Identify the part of speech of every word in the following sentences.

1.I am shivering from the cold.

2.I made delicious pot roast and beans and rice for dinner.

3.There is nothing better than pot roast, in my opinion.

4.Yikes! I somehow left my hat in the oven!

5.Actually we would rather order Chinese food and watch TV, because we can eat these fortune cookies and stand on our heads until we are ready for bed.

Chapter 1. Answers and explanations

Quick Quiz #1

Jimmy Brooks, Casey Jones, hosts, showcase, Blast Masters Club, musicians, area, instruments, Jimmy, Casey, banter, musicians, cream of the crop, headliner, lady, stage name, Tooth Fairy, rocker, New York City, Big Apple, Jimmy, Casey, years, Sundays, diner, minutes, club

Quick Quiz #2

1.fewer (individual marshmallows)

2.a perfect (absolute adjective)

3.better (comparing two things)

4.spongier than (comparing a marshmallow to any other single food: two things)

5.many (individual marshmallows); less (uncountable Jell-O)

Quick Quiz #3

There are several correct answers for some questions in this drill. If you wrote in any of the following you are A-OK:

1.waits, is waiting, waited, was waiting, has waited, has been waiting, will wait

2.screamed, was screaming; forgot, had forgotten

3.will give

4.had remembered

5.will have, will be having

Quick Quiz #4

at school, into cliques, of none, of them, in his own clique, in itself, by definition, in fact, for something, in some hidden way, for a visit, from the alien

Quick Quiz #5

Billy had several more visits from the aliens. Sometimes they ate snacks on his Buick; sometimes they played music and danced. One alien in particular became Billy’s friend. The alien taught Billy some good tricks: a foolproof method for shooting foul shots, a lip smacking recipe for tadpoles, and a way to make his eyes change color at will.

Later in life, Billy found himself married, with two small children, living in a peaceful suburb. He said that he couldn’t be happier.

“You miss the aliens,” said his wife one night, putting the children to bed.

She was right. His Buick had long ago gone to the scrap heap, and the aliens, once his friends, did not appear anymore. Sometimes it made Billy sad, but he threw himself into his work as an accountant for a chain of dry cleaners and occasionally he made a little money making bets on his foul-shooting. Although he lived a sedate, quiet life, he always treasured the days of snacking with the aliens.

Drill 1

1.E

Unique is an absolute adjective; you can’t be more or less unique. That gets rid of (A), (B), and (C). Choice (D) uses the past perfect continuous (had been designing) for no good reason. Past perfect is more appropriate because it makes clear that the dress was designed at an earlier time than Gomez thought.

2.D

That is better than which, because the clause that were made for Pinky and me defines which dresses we mean. Also, the clause is not set off by commas, which is another indicator that which would not be appropriate. That eliminates (A) and (B). In (C), the clause having been made functions as an adjective, leaving the sentence with no verb. Also, in (A) and (C), the pronoun case is incorrect: made for me, not made for I. Choice (E) is awkward and uses hanged, which only applies to people (grotesquely enough), not dresses.

3.D

Criteria is plural; criterion is singular. So (A), (B), and (E) are out. Choice (C) switches from you to one. Remember to keep pronouns consistent.

4.C

Amount applies to non-countable nouns, such as water. Cross out (A), (B), and (D). Choice (E) has a tense problem; the sentence is referring to 1978, so you need past tense (wore), not present continuous (are wearing).

5.C

Look at the clause but her and me have: the verb have requires a subject, so her or me (objective case) is incorrect. Get rid of (A), (B), and (E). Choice (D) says are being back, which is nutty. Also, pumps and tight jeans are countable nouns, so fewer is appropriate, not less.

Drill 2

1.A

When comparing two nouns, use the comparative form: more talented. Most talented is the superlative form, used to compare more than two nouns.

2.C

Wrong principal part. The past participle of begin is begun.

3.E

No error.

4.A

Use among for more than two, and between for two.

5.C

Constant is an adjective. The word being modified is changing, a verb, so you need an adverb: constantly.

Drill 3

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Note: Pot roast and fortune cookies may each be thought of as one noun.