Practical argument: A text and anthology - Laurie G. Kirszner, Stephen R. Mandell 2019
Classic arguments
Debates, casebooks, and classic arguments
THE ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE
PLATO
Plato (428 B.C.E.—347 B.C.E.) was an important Greek philosopher. In The Republic, from which “The Allegory of the Cave” is drawn, Plato examines the nature of reality, how we know what we know, and how we should act. An allegory is a dramatic representation of abstract ideas by characters and events in a story or image. “The Allegory of the Cave” is an imagined dialogue between Plato’s teacher (Socrates) and brother (Glaucon).
And now, I said, let me show in a figure how far our nature is enlightened or unenlightened:—Behold! human beings living in an underground den, which has a mouth open towards the light and reaching all along the den; here they have been from their childhood, and have their legs and necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see before them, being prevented by the chains from turning round their heads. Above and behind them a fire is blazing at a distance, and between the fire and the prisoners there is a raised way; and you will see, if you look, a low wall built along the way, like the screen which marionette players have in front of them, over which they show the puppets.
I see.
And do you see, I said, men passing along the wall carrying all sorts of vessels, and statues and figures of animals made of wood and stone and various materials, which appear over the wall? Some of them are talking, others silent.
You have shown me a strange image, and they are strange prisoners.
Like ourselves, I replied; and they see only their own shadows, or the shadows of one another, which the fire throws on the opposite wall of the cave?
True, he said; how could they see anything but the shadows if they were never allowed to move their heads?
And of the objects which are being carried in like manner they would only see the shadows?
Yes, he said.
And if they were able to converse with one another, would they not suppose that they were naming what was actually before them?
Very true.
And suppose further that the prison had an echo which came from the other side, would they not be sure to fancy when one of the passers-by spoke that the voice which they heard came from the passing shadow?
No question, he replied.
To them, I said, the truth would be literally nothing but the shadows of the images.
That is certain.
And now look again, and see what will naturally follow if the prisoners are released and disabused of their error. At first, when any of them is liberated and compelled suddenly to stand up and turn his neck round and walk and look towards the light, he will suffer sharp pains; the glare will distress him, and he will be unable to see the realities of which in his former state he had seen the shadows; and then conceive someone saying to him, that what he saw before was an illusion, but that now, when he is approaching nearer to being and his eye is turned towards more real existence, he has a clearer vision—what will be his reply? And you may further imagine that his instructor is pointing to the objects as they pass and requiring him to name them,—will he not be perplexed? Will he not fancy that the shadows which he formerly saw are truer than the objects which are now shown to him?
Far truer.
And if he is compelled to look straight at the light, will he not have a pain in his eyes which will make him turn away to take refuge in the objects of vision which he can see, and which he will conceive to be in reality clearer than the things which are now being shown to him?
True, he said.
And suppose once more, that he is reluctantly dragged up a steep and rugged ascent, and held fast until he is forced into the presence of the sun himself, is he not likely to be pained and irritated? When he approaches the light his eyes will be dazzled, and he will not be able to see anything at all of what are now called realities.
Not all in a moment, he said.
He will require to grow accustomed to the sight of the upper world. And first he will see the shadows best, next the reflections of men and other objects in the water, and then the objects themselves; then he will gaze upon the light of the moon and the stars and the spangled heaven; and he will see the sky and the stars by night better than the sun or the light of the sun by day?
Certainly.
Last of all he will be able to see the sun,i and not mere reflections of him in the water, but he will see him in his own proper place, and not in another; and he will contemplate him as he is.
Certainly.
He will then proceed to argue that this is he who gives the season and the years, and is the guardian of all that is in the visible world, and in a certain way the cause of all things which he and his fellows have been accustomed to behold?
Clearly, he said, he would first see the sun and then reason about him.
And when he remembered his old habitation, and the wisdom of the den and his fellow prisoners, do you not suppose that he would felicitate himself on the change, and pity them?
Certainly, he would.
And if they were in the habit of conferring honors among themselves on those who were quickest to observe the passing shadows and to remark which of them went before, and which followed after, and which were together; and who were therefore best able to draw conclusions as to the future, do you think that he would care for such honors and glories, or envy the possessors of them? Would he not say with Homer,ii
Better to be the poor servant of a poor master,
and to endure anything, rather than think as they do and live after their manner?
Yes, he said, I think that he would rather suffer anything than entertain these false notions and live in this miserable manner.
Imagine once more, I said, such a one coming suddenly out of the sun to be replaced in his old situation; would he not be certain to have his eyes full of darkness?
To be sure, he said.
And if there were a contest, and he had to compete in measuring the shadows with the prisoners who had never moved out of the den, while his sight was still weak, and before his eyes had become steady (and the time which would be needed to acquire this new habit of sight might be very considerable), would he not be ridiculous? Men would say of him that up he went and down he came without his eyes; and that it was better not even to think of ascending; and if any one tried to loose another and lead him up to the light, let them only catch the offender, and they would put him to death.
No question, he said.
This entire allegory, I said, you may now append, dear Glaucon,iii to the previous argument; the prison house is the world of sight, the light of the fire is the sun, and you will not misapprehend me if you interpret the journey upwards to be the ascent of the soul into the intellectual world according to my poor belief, which, at your desire, I have expressed—whether rightly or wrongly God knows. But, whether true or false, my opinion is that in the world of knowledge the idea of good appears last of all, and is seen only with an effort; and, when seen, is also inferred to be the universal author of all things beautiful and right, parent of light and of the lord of light in this visible world, and the immediate source of reason and truth in the intellectual; and that this is the power upon which he who would act rationally either in public or private life must have his eye fixed.
I agree, he said, as far as I am able to understand you.
Moreover, I said, you must not wonder that those who attain to this beatific vision are unwilling to descend to human affairs; for their souls are ever hastening into the upper world where they desire to dwell; which desire of theirs is very natural, if our allegory may be trusted.
Yes, very natural.
And is there anything surprising in one who passes from divine contemplations to the evil state of man, misbehaving himself in a ridiculous manner; if, while his eyes are blinking and before he has become accustomed to the surrounding darkness, he is compelled to fight in courts of law, or in other places, about the images or the shadows of images of justice, and is endeavoring to meet the conceptions of those who have never yet seen absolute justice?
Anything but surprising, he replied.
Anyone who has common sense will remember that the bewilderments of the eyes are of two kinds, and arise from two causes, either from coming out of the light or from going into the light, which is true of the mind’s eye, quite as much as of the bodily eye; and he who remembers this when he sees anyone whose vision is perplexed and weak, will not be too ready to laugh; he will first ask whether that soul of man has come out of the brighter life, and is unable to see because unaccustomed to the dark, or having turned from darkness to the day is dazzled by excess of light. And he will count the one happy in his condition and state of being, and he will pity the other; or, if he have a mind to laugh at the soul which comes from below into the light, there will be more reason in this than in the laugh which greets him who returns from above out of the light into the den.
That, he said, is a very just distinction.
But then, if I am right, certain professors of education must be wrong when they say that they can put a knowledge into the soul which was not there before, like sight into blind eyes.
They undoubtedly say this, he replied.
Whereas, our argument shows that the power and capacity of learning exists in the soul already; and that just as the eye was unable to turn from darkness to light without the whole body, so too the instrument of knowledge can only by the movement of the whole soul be turned from the world of becoming into that of being, and learn by degrees to endure the sight of being, and of the brightest and best of being, or in other words, of the good.
Very true.
And must there not be some art which will effect conversion in the easiest and quickest manner; not implanting the faculty of sight, for that exists already, but has been turned in the wrong direction, and is looking away from the truth?
Yes, he said, such an art may be presumed.
And whereas the other so-called virtues of the soul seem to be akin to bodily qualities, for even when they are not originally innate they can be implanted later by habit and exercise, the virtue of wisdom more than anything else contains a divine element which always remains, and by this conversion is rendered useful and profitable; or, on the other hand, hurtful and useless. Did you never observe the narrow intelligence flashing from the keen eye of a clever rogue—how eager he is, how clearly his paltry soul sees the way to his end; he is the reverse of blind, but his keen eyesight is forced into the service of evil, and he is mischievous in proportion to his cleverness?
Very true, he said.
But what if there had been a circumcision of such natures in the days of their youth; and they had been severed from those sensual pleasures, such as eating and drinking, which, like leaden weights, were attached to them at their birth, and which drag them down and turn the vision of their souls upon the things that are below—if, I say, they had been released from these impediments and turned in the opposite direction, the very same faculty in them would have seen the truth as keenly as they see what their eyes are turned to now.
Very likely.
Yes, I said; and there is another thing which is likely, or rather a necessary inference from what has preceded, that neither the uneducated and uninformed of the truth, nor yet those who never make an end of their education, will be able ministers of State; not the former, because they have no single aim of duty which is the rule of all their actions, private as well as public; nor the latter, because they will not act at all except upon compulsion, fancying that they are already dwelling apart in the islands of the blessed.
Very true, he replied.
Then, I said, the business of us who are the founders of the State will be to compel the best minds to attain that knowledge which we have already shown to be the greatest of all—they must continue to ascend until they arrive at the good; but when they have ascended and seen enough we must not allow them to do as they do now.
What do you mean?
I mean that they remain in the upper world: but this must not be allowed; they must be made to descend again among the prisoners in the den, and partake of their labors and honors, whether they are worth having or not.
But is not this unjust? he said; ought we to give them a worse life, when they might have a better?
You have again forgotten, my friend, I said, the intention of the legislator, who did not aim at making any one class in the State happy above the rest; the happiness was to be in the whole State, and he held the citizens together by persuasion and necessity, making them benefactors of the State, and therefore benefactors of one another; to this end he created them, not to please themselves, but to be his instruments in binding up the State.
True, he said, I had forgotten.
Observe, Glaucon, that there will be no injustice in compelling our philosophers to have a care and providence of others; we shall explain to them that in other States, men of their class are not obliged to share in the toils of politics: and this is reasonable, for they grow up at their own sweet will, and the government would rather not have them. Being self-taught, they cannot be expected to show any gratitude for a culture which they have never received. But we have brought you into the world to be rulers of the hive, kings of yourselves and of the other citizens, and have educated you far better and more perfectly than they have been educated, and you are better able to share in the double duty. Wherefore each of you, when his turn comes, must go down to the general underground abode, and get the habit of seeing in the dark. When you have acquired the habit, you will see ten thousand times better than the inhabitants of the den, and you will know what the several images are, and what they represent, because you have seen the beautiful and just and good in their truth. And thus our State, which is also yours, will be a reality, and not a dream only, and will be administered in a spirit unlike that of other States, in which men fight with one another about shadows only and are distracted in the struggle for power, which in their eyes is a great good. Whereas the truth is that the State in which the rulers are most reluctant to govern is always the best and most quietly governed, and the State in which they are most eager, the worst.
Quite true, he replied.
And will our pupils, when they hear this, refuse to take their turn at the toils of State, when they are allowed to spend the greater part of their time with one another in the heavenly light?
Impossible, he answered; for they are just men, and the commands which we impose upon them are just; there can be no doubt that every one of them will take office as a stern necessity, and not after the fashion of our present rulers of State.
Yes, my friend, I said; and there lies the point. You must contrive for your future rulers another and a better life than that of a ruler, and then you may have a well-ordered State; for only in the State which offers this, will they rule who are truly rich, not in silver and gold, but in virtue and wisdom, which are the true blessings of life. Whereas if they go to the administration of public affairs, poor and hungering after their own private advantage, thinking that hence they are to snatch the chief good, order there can never be; for they will be fighting about office, and the civil and domestic broils which thus arise will be the ruin of the rulers themselves and of the whole State.
Most true, he replied.
And the only life which looks down upon the life of political ambition is that of true philosophy. Do you know of any other?
Indeed, I do not, he said.
READING ARGUMENTS
1. Do you find Plato’s allegory persuasive? What are its strengths and weaknesses?
2. According to Plato, what are the benefits of becoming educated about the true nature of reality? What are the drawbacks and costs of this process?
3. “The Allegory of the Cave” contains elements of a proposal argument. What does Plato propose? In what sense, if any, does his proposal apply to contemporary politics?
4. This argument is presented in the form of a dialogue, in which Glaucon responds to Socrates. How do Glaucon’s responses move Plato’s argument along?
WRITING ARGUMENTS
Both Plato and Thomas Jefferson (p. 732) discuss political leadership. How are their views similar? Where do their beliefs about the proper conduct and nature of political leaders differ? Which writer’s argument seems more persuasive, and why? Develop your ideas in an argumentative essay.
i Earth’s star, often associated in Plato’s work with reason, absolute good, intellectual illumination, and God
ii A blind Greek poet from the eighth century B.C.E., author of the epics The Iliad and The Odyssey
iii Plato’s brother, who responds to the questions, ideas, and arguments Socrates poses in The Republic
TO HIS COY MISTRESS
ANDREW MARVELL
Andrew Marvell (1621—1678) was a member of the English Parliament for twenty years, starting in 1658. His poetry, which he wrote for his own enjoyment, was not published until after his death. “To His Coy Mistress” is his best-known poem.
Had we but world enough, and time,
This coyness, lady, were no crime.
We would sit down, and think which way
To walk, and pass our long love’s day.
Thou by the Indian Gangesi side
Should’st rubies find: I by the tide
Of Humberii would complain.iii I would
Love you ten years before the Flood,
And you should, if you please, refuse
Till the conversion of the Jews.iv
My vegetable lovev should grow
Vaster than empires, and more slow.
An hundred years should go to praise
Thine eyes, and on thy forehead gaze:
Two hundred to adore each breast:
But thirty thousand to the rest.
An age at least to every part,
And the last age should show your heart.
For, lady, you deserve this state,
Nor would I love at lower rate.
But at my back I always hear
Time’s winged chariot hurrying near;
And yonder all before us lie
Deserts of vast eternity.
Thy beauty shall no more be found,
Nor in thy marble vault shall sound
My echoing song; then worms shall try
That long preserved virginity,
And your quaint honor turn to dust,
And into ashes all my lust.
The grave’s a fine and private place,
But none, I think, do there embrace.
Now therefore, while the youthful hue
Sits on thy skin like morning dew,
And while thy willing soul transpires
At every pore with instant fires,
Now let us sport us while we may;
and now, like am’rous birds of prey,
Rather at once our time devour,
Than languish in his slow-chaptvi power,
Let us roll all our strength, and all
Our sweetness, up into one ball;
And tear our pleasures with rough strife
Thoroughvii the iron gates of life.
Thus, though we cannot make our sun
Stand still, yet we will make him run.
READING ARGUMENTS
1. “To His Coy Mistress” is divided into three sections. Paraphrase each section’s main idea in a single sentence.
2. What does the phrase “coy mistress” suggest about the occasion and audience for the poem? How do you think the “coy mistress” would respond to the speaker’s arguments?
3. How does the speaker’s attitude toward time—and toward his relationship with the lady he addresses—change in line 21? How does this shift support his argument? What does he say will happen to the lady if she is not persuaded by his poem?
4. The concluding stanza of the poem begins with the phrase, “Now therefore.” How does the speaker develop a deductive argument in the lines that follow?
WRITING ARGUMENTS
1. Write a letter from the “coy mistress” to the poem’s speaker refuting his arguments.
2. “To His Coy Mistress” is generally considered to be a poem on the theme of carpe diem, which means “seize the day.” The full quotation comes from the Roman poet Horace: “Seize the day, and place no trust in tomorrow.” Does this seem like a good philosophy of life? Write an argumentative essay that develops your position on this issue.
i To write poems or songs of unrequited love
ii The belief that Jews would be converted to Christianity during the Last Judgment; the end of time
iii A slow-growing love
iv Slowly chewing jaws
v Through
vi A river in India
vii A river in England that flows past the city of Hull
A MODEST PROPOSAL
JONATHAN SWIFT
Jonathan Swift (1667—1745) was a Protestant clergyman (dean of St. Patrick’s Cathedral in Dublin) and a member of the Irish ruling class. His other works include A Tale of a Tub (1704) and Gulliver’s Travels (1726). “A Modest Proposal,” written in 1729, addresses the wretched condition of the Irish people under English rule: drought had caused crop failures in Ireland, and English landowners ignored the widespread famine while thousands died of starvation.
It is a melancholy object to those who walk through this great town or travel in the country, when they see the streets, the roads, and cabin doors, crowded with beggars of the female sex, followed by three, four, or six children, all in rags and importuning every passenger for an alms. These mothers instead of being able to work for their honest livelihood, are forced to employ all their time in strolling to beg sustenance for their helpless infants: who as they grow up either turn thieves for want of work, or leave their dear native country to fight for the pretender in Spain,i or sell themselves to the Barbadoes.ii
I think it is agreed by all parties that this prodigious number of children in the arms, or on the backs, or at the heels of their mothers, and frequently of their fathers, is in the present deplorable state of the kingdom a very great additional grievance; and, therefore, whoever could find out a fair, cheap, and easy method of making these children sound, useful members of the commonwealth, would deserve so well of the public as to have his statue set up for a preserver of the nation.
But my intention is very far from being confined to provide only for the children of professed beggars; it is of a much greater extent, and shall take in the whole number of infants at a certain age who are born of parents in effect as little able to support them as those who demand our charity in the streets.
As to my own part, having turned my thoughts for many years upon this important subject, and maturely weighed the several schemes of our projectors, I have always found them grossly mistaken in their computation. It is true, a child just dropped from its damiii may be supported by her milk for a solar year, with little other nourishment; at most not above the value of 2s., which the mother may certainly get, or the value in scraps, by her lawful occupation of begging; and it is exactly at one year old that I propose to provide for them in such a manner as instead of being a charge upon their parents or the parish, or wanting food and raiment for the rest of their lives, they shall on the contrary contribute to the feeding, and partly to the clothing, of many thousands.
There is likewise another great advantage in my scheme, that it will prevent those voluntary abortions, and that horrid practice of women murdering their bastard children, alas! too frequent among us! sacrificing the poor innocent babes I doubt more to avoid the expense than the shame, which would move tears and pity in the most savage and inhuman breast.
The number of souls in this kingdom being usually reckoned one million and a half, of these I calculate there may be about 200,000 couple whose wives are breeders; from which number I subtract 30,000 couple who are able to maintain their own children (although I apprehend there cannot be so many, under the present distress of the kingdom); but this being granted, there will remain 170,000 breeders. I again subtract 50,000 for those women who miscarry, or whose children die by accident or disease within the year. There only remain 120,000 children of poor parents annually born. The question therefore is, how this number shall be reared and provided for? which, as I have already said, under the present situation of affairs, is utterly impossible by all the methods hitherto proposed. For we can neither employ them in handicraft nor agriculture; we neither build houses (I mean in the country) nor cultivate land; they can very seldom pick up a livelihood by stealing, till they arrive at six years old, except where they are of towardly parts, although I confess they learn the rudiments much earlier, during which time they can, however, be properly looked upon only as probationers; as I have been informed by a principal gentleman in the county of Cavan, who protested to me that he never knew above one or two instances under the age of six, even in a part of the kingdom so renowned for the quickest proficiency in that art.
I am assured by our merchants, that a boy or a girl before twelve years old is no salable commodity; and even when they come to this age they will not yield above 3£. or 3£. 2s. 6d. at most on the exchange; which cannot turn to account either to the parents or kingdom, the charge of nutriment and rags having been at least four times that value.
I shall now therefore humbly propose my own thoughts, which I hope will not be liable to the least objection.
I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or broiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee or a ragout.
I do therefore humbly offer it to public consideration that of the 120,000 children already computed, 20,000 may be reserved for breed, whereof only one-fourth part to be males; which is more than we allow to sheep, black cattle, or swine; and my reason is, that these children are seldom the fruits of marriage, a circumstance not much regarded by our savages; therefore one male will be sufficient to serve four females. That the remaining 100,000 may, at a year old, be offered in sale to the persons of quality and fortune through the kingdom; always advising the mother to let them suck plentifully in the last month, so as to render them plump and fat for a good table. A child will make two dishes at an entertainment for friends; and when the family dines alone, the fore and hind quarter will make a reasonable dish, and seasoned with a little pepper or salt will be very good boiled on the fourth day, especially in winter.
I have reckoned upon a medium that a child just born will weigh 12 pounds, and in a solar year, if tolerably nursed, will increase to 28 pounds.
I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for landlords, who, as they have already devoured most of the parents, seem to have the best title to the children.
Infants’ flesh will be in season throughout the year, but more plentiful in March, and a little before and after: for we are told by a grave author, an eminent French physician, that fish being a prolific diet, there are more children born in Roman Catholic countries about nine months after Lent than at any other season; therefore, reckoning a year after Lent, the markets will be more glutted than usual, because the number of popish infants is at least three to one in this kingdom: and therefore it will have one other collateral advantage, by lessening the number of papistsiv among us.
I have already computed the charge of nursing a beggar’s child (in which list I reckon all cottagers, laborers, and four-fifths of the farmers) to be about 2s. per annum, rags included; and I believe no gentleman would repine to give 10s. for the carcass of a good fat child, which, as I have said, will make four dishes of excellent nutritive meat, when he has only some particular friend or his own family to dine with him. Thus the squire will learn to be a good landlord, and grow popular among the tenants; the mother will have 8s. net profit, and be fit for work till she produces another child.
Those who are more thrifty (as I must confess the times require) may flay the carcass; the skin of which artificially dressed will make admirable gloves for ladies, and summer boots for fine gentlemen.
As to our city of Dublin, shamblesv may be appointed for this purpose in the most convenient parts of it, and butchers we may be assured will not be wanting: although I rather recommend buying the children alive, and dressing them hot from the knife as we do roasting pigs.
A very worthy person, a true lover of his country, and whose virtues I highly esteem, was lately pleased in discoursing on this matter to offer a refinement upon my scheme. He said that many gentlemen of this kingdom, having of late destroyed their deer, he conceived that the want of venison might be well supplied by the bodies of young lads and maidens, not exceeding fourteen years of age nor under twelve; so great a number of both sexes in every country being now ready to starve for want of work and service; and these to be disposed of by their parents, if alive, or otherwise by their nearest relations. But with due deference to so excellent a friend and so deserving a patriot, I cannot be altogether in his sentiments; for as to the males, my American acquaintance assured me from frequent experience that their flesh was generally tough and lean, like that of our schoolboys by continual exercise, and their taste disagreeable; and to fatten them would not answer the charge. Then as to the females, it would, I think, with humble submission be a loss to the public, because they soon would become breeders themselves: and besides, it is not improbable that some scrupulous people might be apt to censure such a practice (although indeed very unjustly), as a little bordering upon cruelty; which, I confess, has always been with me the strongest objection against any project, how well soever intended.
But in order to justify my friend, he confessed that this expedient was put into his head by the famous Psalmanazar,vi a native of the island Formosa, who came from thence to London about twenty years ago: and in conversation told my friend, that in his country when any young person happened to be put to death, the executioner sold the carcass to persons of quality as a prime dainty; and that in his time the body of a plump girl of fifteen, who was crucified for an attempt to poison the emperor, was sold to his imperial majesty’s prime minister of state, and other great mandarinsvii of the court, in joints from the gibbet,viii at 400 crowns. Neither indeed can I deny, that if the same use were made of several plump young girls in this town, who without one single groatxi to their fortunes cannot stir abroad without a chair, and appear at the playhouse and assemblies in foreign fineries which they never will pay for, the kingdom would not be the worse.
Some persons of a desponding spirit are in great concern about the vast number of poor people, who are aged, diseased, or maimed, and I have been desired to employ my thoughts what course may be taken to ease the nation of so grievous an encumbrance. But I am not in the least pain upon that matter, because it is very well known that they are every day dying and rotting by cold and famine, and filth and vermin, as fast as can be reasonably expected. And as to the young laborers, they are now in as hopeful condition: They cannot get work, and consequently pine away for want of nourishment, to a degree that if at any time they are accidentally hired to common labor, they have not strength to perform it; and thus the country and themselves are happily delivered from the evils to come.
I have too long digressed, and therefore shall return to my subject. I think the advantages by the proposal which I have made are obvious and many, as well as of the highest importance.
For first, as I have already observed, it would greatly lessen the number of papists, with whom we are yearly overrun, being the principal breeders of the nation as well as our most dangerous enemies; and who stay at home on purpose to deliver the kingdom to the Pretender, hoping to take their advantage by the absence of so many good Protestants, who have chosen rather to leave their country than stay at home and pay tithes against their conscience to an Episcopal curate.
Secondly, The poor tenants will have something valuable of their own, which by law may be made liable to distressx and help to pay their landlord’s rent, their corn and cattle being already seized, and money a thing unknown.
Thirdly, Whereas the maintenance of 100,000 children from two years old and upward, cannot be computed at less that 10s. a-piece per annum, the nation’s stock will be thereby increased £50,000 per annum, beside the profit of a new dish introduced to the tables of all gentlemen of fortune in the kingdom who have any refinement in taste. And the money will circulate among ourselves, the goods being entirely of our own growth and manufacture.
Fourthly, The constant breeders beside the gain of 8s. sterling per annum by the sale of their children, will be rid of the charge of maintaining them after the first year.
Fifthly, This food would likewise bring great custom to taverns, where the vintners will certainly be so prudent as to procure the best receipts for dressing it to perfection, and consequently have their houses frequented by all the fine gentlemen, who justly value themselves upon their knowledge in good eating; and a skillful cook who understands how to oblige his guests, will contrive to make it as expensive as they please.
Sixthly, This would be a great inducement to marriage, which all wise nations have either encouraged by rewards or enforced by laws and penalties. It would increase the care and tenderness of mothers toward their children, when they were sure of a settlement for life to the poor babes, provided in some sort by the public, to their annual profit instead of expense. We should see an honest emulation among the married women, which of them would bring the fattest child to the market. Men would become as fond of their wives during the time of their pregnancy as they are now of their mares in foal, their cows in calf, their sows when they are ready to farrow; nor offer to beat or kick them (as is too frequent a practice) for fear of a miscarriage.
Many other advantages might be enumerated. For instance, the addition of some thousand carcasses in our exportation of barreled beef, the propagation of swine’s flesh, and improvement in the art of making good bacon, so much wanted among us by the great destruction of pigs, too frequent at our table; which are no way comparable in taste or magnificence to a well-grown, fat, yearling child, which roasted whole will make a considerable figure at a lord mayor’s feast or any other public entertainment. But this and many others I omit, being studious of brevity.
Supposing that 1,000 families in this city would be constant customers for infants’ flesh, besides others who might have it at merry-meetings, particularly at weddings and christenings, I compute that Dublin would take off annually about 20,000 carcasses; and the rest of the kingdom (where probably they will be sold somewhat cheaper) the remaining 80,000.
I can think of no one objection that will possibly be raised against this proposal unless it should be urged that the number of people will be thereby much lessened in the kingdom. This I freely own, and it was indeed one principal design in offering it to the world. I desire the reader will observe, that I calculate my remedy for this one individual kingdom of Ireland and for no other that ever was, is, or I think ever can be upon earth. Therefore let no man talk to me of other expedients: of taxing our absentees at 5s. a pound: of using neither clothes nor household furniture except what is of our own growth and manufacture: of utterly rejecting the materials and instruments that promote foreign luxury: of curing the expensiveness of pride, vanity, idleness, and gaming in our women: of introducing a vein of parsimony, prudence, and temperance: of learning to love our country, in the want of which we differ even from Laplanders,xi and the inhabitants of Topinamboo:xii of quitting our animosities and factions, nor acting any longer like the Jews, who were murdering one another at the very moment their cityxiii was taken: of being a little cautious not to sell our country and conscience for nothing: of teaching landlords to have at least one degree of mercy toward their tenants: lastly, of putting a spirit of honesty, industry, and skill into our shopkeepers; who, if a resolution could now be taken to buy only our native goods, would immediately unite to cheat and exact upon us in the price, the measure, and the goodness, nor could ever yet be brought to make one fair proposal of just dealing, though often and earnestly invited to it.
Therefore I repeat, let no man talk to me of these and the like expedients, till he has at least some glimpse of hope that there will be ever some hearty and sincere attempt to put them in practice.
But as to myself, having been wearied out for many years with offering vain, idle, visionary thoughts, and at length utterly despairing of success, I fortunately fell upon this proposal; which, as it is wholly new, so it has something solid and real, of no expense and little trouble, full in our own power, and whereby we can incur no danger in disobliging England. For this kind of commodity will not bear exportation, the flesh being of too tender a consistence to admit a long continuance in salt, although perhaps I could name a countryxiv which would be glad to eat up our whole nation without it.
After all, I am not so violently bent upon my own opinion as to reject any offer proposed by wise men, which shall be found equally innocent, cheap, easy, and effectual. But before something of that kind shall be advanced in contradiction to my scheme, and offering a better, I desire the author or authors will be pleased maturely to consider two points. First, as things now stand, how they will be able to find food and raiment for 100,000 useless mouths and backs. And secondly, there being a round million of creatures in human figure throughout this kingdom, whose subsistence put into a common stock would leave them in debt 2,000,000£. sterling, adding those who are beggars by profession to the bulk of farmers, cottagers, and laborers, with the wives and children who are beggars in effect; I desire those politicians who dislike my overture, and may perhaps be so bold as to attempt an answer, that they will first ask the parents of these mortals, whether they would not at this day think it a great happiness to have been sold for food at a year old in the manner I prescribe, and thereby have avoided such a perpetual scene of misfortunes as they have since gone through by the oppression of landlords, the impossibility of paying rent without money or trade, the want of common sustenance, with neither house nor clothes to cover them from the inclemencies of the weather, and the most inevitable prospect of entailing the like or greater miseries upon their breed for ever.
I profess, in the sincerity of my heart, that I have not the least personal interest in endeavoring to promote this necessary work, having no other motive than the public good of my country, by advancing our trade, providing for infants, relieving the poor, and giving some pleasure to the rich. I have no children by which I can propose to get a single penny; the youngest being nine years old, and my wife past childbearing.
READING ARGUMENTS
1. Swift’s “A Modest Proposal” is satire: it takes a position that is so extreme that readers must necessarily disagree with it. By taking such a position, Swift ridicules the English political system that he considers corrupt and insensitive and implies another, more reasonable argument that the reader must infer. What is the real argument that Swift is making in “A Modest Proposal”? What social reforms does he propose?
2. Where does “A Modest Proposal” use inductive reasoning?
3. In what sense is “A Modest Proposal” an ethical argument?
4. Swift’s use of irony—saying one thing but meaning another—is a useful technique for making an argument, yet it also has limitations. What are some of these limitations?
5. What elements of a proposal argument appear in this essay? Which elements, if any, are missing?
WRITING ARGUMENTS
1. Write your own “modest proposal.” Choose a contemporary issue or controversy (political, cultural, or social). Then, write an argumentative essay that uses irony, satire, and hyperbole (intentional exaggeration) to make your point.
2. “A Modest Proposal” includes population data, economic projections, and other kinds of support. What point do you think Swift is making about actual proposals to solve social or political problems? Do you think his point is relevant today? Why or why not?
i James Francis Edward Stuart (1688—1766), descendant of the Stuart royal line. After the Stuarts were expelled from Protestant England in 1689, they took refuge in Catholic countries.
ii A New World colony in the Caribbean. The poor sometimes emigrated from Ireland to Barbados to find work.
iii Just born
iv Catholics. The term papists suggests their allegiance to the Pope rather than to the Church of England.
v Butcher shops
vi George Psalmanazar (1679 [approx.]—1763), who falsely claimed to be the first person from Formosa (modern-day Taiwan) to visit Europe. He described Formosan native customs that included cannibalism.
vii Chinese nobles, court officials, or magistrates
viii A post for hanging; a gallows
ix A small coin
x Able to be seized to pay a debt
xi The indigenous Sami people of northern European countries, including Sweden, Norway, and Finland. The term is now considered pejorative.
xii Brazil
xiii Jerusalem, which was conquered by the Roman commander Titus in 70 C.E.
xiv England
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
THOMAS JEFFERSON
Thomas Jefferson, born in 1743, was one of the founding fathers of the United States. He served in the Virginia House of Burgesses and the Continental Congress, as governor of Virginia, minister to France, secretary of state in President George Washington’s cabinet, vice president, and president of the United States for two terms. He also founded the University of Virginia. In 1776, he was chosen to draft the Declaration of Independence, the founding document of American liberties. Jefferson died on July 4, 1826.
· In Congress, July 4, 1776
· The Unanimous Declaration of the
· Thirteen United States of America
When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candidi world.
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Government to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation: For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world: For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent: For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury: For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offenses: For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighboring Province,ii establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies: For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments: For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions.
In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
Nor have We been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.
We, THEREFORE the Representatives of the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.
READING ARGUMENTS
1. What are the purposes of the first and second paragraphs of the Declaration of Independence? Do these opening paragraphs present information deductively or inductively?
2. In paragraph 2, Jefferson writes, “Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes.” Why is this qualification important to his argument? What objections does it anticipate?
3. According to the Declaration, what is the purpose of government? What makes a government legitimate?
4. In what sense is the Declaration of Independence a cause-and-effect argument?
5. What specific evidence does Jefferson supply to support his case? How effective is this evidence? What do you consider his most convincing piece of evidence?
WRITING ARGUMENTS
1. Write a one-page rhetorical analysis of the Declaration of Independence in terms of the Toulmin model. Begin by identifying the claim, the grounds, and the warrant. (See Chapter 6 for more on Toulmin argument; see Chapter 4 for information on writing a rhetorical analysis.)
2. Jefferson writes that revolutionary action should not be taken for “light and transient causes” (para. 2). After an armed uprising several years before the American Revolution, he also said, “God forbid we be 20 years without such a rebellion. . . . The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants.” In your view, what conditions or actions on the part of an established government justify its overthrow? Explain your answer in an argumentative essay.
i Impartial, without prejudice
ii Quebec, whose residents were deprived of political representation by the British government in 1774
THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS
ABRAHAM LINCOLN
Abraham Lincoln (1809—1865) was the sixteenth president of the United States. Raised in frontier Kentucky and Indiana, he rose from rural poverty to become a lawyer, an Illinois state legislator, and a member of the U.S. House of Representatives. He also became one of America’s mythic figures. Elected to the White House in 1861 and again in 1864, Lincoln led the United States through the cataclysm of the Civil War and was assassinated in 1865. His 1863 Gettysburg Address, delivered at the dedication of the Soldier’s National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, is arguably the most famous speech in American history.
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate—we can not consecrate—we can not hallow—this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
READING ARGUMENTS
1. According to Lincoln, what is the obligation of “the living” (para. 3)? Explain this obligation in your own words.
2. Does the Gettysburg Address make an argument? If so, is it a deductive argument or an inductive argument? Explain.
3. Lincoln gave this speech at the dedication of a cemetery, yet he concedes that “in a larger sense, we can not dedicate—we can not consecrate—we can not hallow—this ground” (3). Is he undercutting his own implicit purpose here? How does this concession support his larger point?
4. What strategies does Lincoln use to support his position? Does he make an ethical argument? A cause-and-effect argument? Is this speech in any sense a proposal argument?
WRITING ARGUMENTS
1. Consider Lincoln’s prose style—in particular, its rhythm and word choice. For example, is “Four score and seven years ago” (para. 1) the clearest, simplest phrasing he could have chosen? Rewrite this sentence—or any other sentence—in your own words. How does your version compare to Lincoln’s? What do you learn about Lincoln’s language—and his argument—when you try to paraphrase his speech?
2. In a well-known 1920 essay, the American critic H. L. Mencken lauded the Gettysburg Address as “eloquence brought to a pellucid and almost gem-like perfection—the highest emotion reduced to a few poetical phrases.” However, Mencken qualified his praise of Lincoln’s speech by saying, “But let us not forget that it is poetry, not logic; beauty, not sense.” He said of Lincoln’s main point: “It is difficult to imagine anything more untrue.” How do you respond to Mencken’s assessment? Do you find Lincoln’s argument “true” or “untrue”? Do you think the speech’s “eloquence,” “poetry,” and “beauty” undercut its “logic,” “sense,” and “truth”? Why or why not?
DECLARATION OF SENTIMENTS AND RESOLUTIONS
ELIZABETH CADY STANTON
Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815—1902) was a prominent leader in the struggle for the rights of women, advocating for the right of women to vote, divorce, and be equal to men under law. In 1848, when Stanton’s “Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions” was written for a women’s rights convention in Seneca Falls, New York, married women were not allowed to own property. Stanton’s declaration is modeled on Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence.
When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one portion of the family of man to assume among the people of the earth a position different from that which they have hitherto occupied, but one to which the laws of nature and of nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes that impel them to such a course.
We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights governments are instituted, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. Whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of those who suffer from it to refuse allegiance to it, and to insist upon the institution of a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they were accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their duty to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of the women under this government, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to demand the equal station to which they are entitled.
The history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations on the part of man toward woman, having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over her. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has never permitted her to exercise her inalienable right to the elective franchise.
He has compelled her to submit to laws, in the formation of which she had no voice.
He has withheld from her rights which are given to the most ignorant and degraded men—both natives and foreigners.
Having deprived her of this first right of a citizen, the elective franchise, thereby leaving her without representation in the halls of legislation, he has oppressed her on all sides.
He has made her, if married, in the eye of the law, civilly dead.
He has taken from her all right in property, even to the wages she earns.
He has made her, morally, an irresponsible being, as she can commit many crimes with impunity, provided they be done in the presence of her husband. In the covenant of marriage, she is compelled to promise obedience to her husband, he becoming, to all intents and purposes, her master—the law giving him power to deprive her of her liberty, and to administer chastisement.
He has so framed the laws of divorce, as to what shall be the proper causes, and in case of separation, to whom the guardianship of the children shall be given, as to be wholly regardless of the happiness of women—the law, in all cases, going upon a false supposition of the supremacy of man, and giving all power into his hands.
After depriving her of all rights as a married woman, if single, and the owner of property, he has taxed her to support a government which recognizes her only when her property can be made profitable to it.
He has monopolized nearly all the profitable employments, and from those she is permitted to follow, she receives but a scanty remuneration. He closes against her all the avenues to wealth and distinction which he considers most honorable to himself. As a teacher of theology, medicine, or law, she is not known.
He has denied her the facilities for obtaining a thorough education, all colleges being closed against her.
He allows her in Church, as well as State, but a subordinate position, claiming Apostolic authority for her exclusion from the ministry, and, with some exceptions, from any public participation in the affairs of the Church.
He has created a false public sentiment by giving to the world a different code of morals for men and women, by which moral delinquencies which exclude women from society, are not only tolerated, but deemed of little account in man.
He has usurped the prerogative of Jehovah himself, claiming it as his right to assign for her a sphere of action, when that belongs to her conscience and to her God.
He has endeavored, in every way that he could, to destroy her confidence in her own powers, to lessen her self-respect, and to make her willing to lead a dependent and abject life.
Now, in view of this entire disfranchisement of one-half the people of this country, their social and religious degradation—in view of the unjust laws above mentioned, and because women do feel themselves aggrieved, oppressed, and fraudulently deprived of their most sacred rights, we insist that they have immediate admission to all the rights and privileges which belong to them as citizens of the United States.
In entering upon the great work before us, we anticipate no small amount of misconception, misrepresentation, and ridicule; but we shall use every instrumentality within our power to effect our object. We shall employ agents, circulate tracts, petition the State and National legislatures, and endeavor to enlist the pulpit and the press in our behalf. We hope this Convention will be followed by a series of Conventions embracing every part of the country.
READING ARGUMENTS
1. Why do you think Stanton chose to echo the style and structure of the Declaration of Independence? What point was she trying to make?
2. How do Stanton’s general political aims contrast with Jefferson’s goals in the Declaration of Independence (p. 732)?
3. According to Stanton, “The history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations on the part of man toward woman, having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over her” (para. 3). How does she support this generalization? Do you find her evidence convincing? Why or why not?
4. Stanton writes that man has “usurped the prerogative of Jehovah himself, claiming it as his right to assign for [women] a sphere of action” (17). What do you think she means? Do you think her point is valid today?
5. In her conclusion, Stanton summarizes how women will fulfill the goals of her declaration. What specific steps does she expect women to take?
WRITING ARGUMENTS
1. Stanton accuses male-dominated society not only of “monopoliz[ing] nearly all the profitable employments” (para. 13) but also of “giving to the world a different code of morals for men and women” (16). Do you think these gender restrictions and double standards still exist today? Write an argumentative essay that takes a stand on this issue.
2. In paragraph 2, Stanton quotes Thomas Jefferson’s claim that “all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they were accustomed.” What view of human nature is implied here? Do you agree with this view? Do you think it is still held by people today? Explain your views in an argumentative essay.
POLITICS AND THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
GEORGE ORWELL
George Orwell was the pen name of journalist, critic, and novelist Eric Blair (1903—1950), best known for his allegorical satire Animal Farm (1945) and his dystopian novel 1984 (1949). Orwell also wrote nonfiction about many different subjects, from his experiences in the Spanish Civil War to his affection for English cooking. He was especially preoccupied with language and political writing—for example, the ways in which political orthodoxy leads to a “lifeless, imitative style.” Orwell himself rejected orthodoxy: he was a democratic socialist who criticized socialism, a lover of England who attacked British colonialism, and a literary highbrow who enjoyed popular culture. Although it was written in 1946, “Politics and the English Language” remains an excellent guide for avoiding the bad writing habits of “political conformity.”
Most people who bother with the matter at all would admit that the English language is in a bad way, but it is generally assumed that we cannot by conscious action do anything about it. Our civilization is decadent and our language—so the argument runs—must inevitably share in the general collapse. It follows that any struggle against the abuse of language is a sentimental archaism, like preferring candles to electric light or hansom cabs to aeroplanes. Underneath this lies the half-conscious belief that language is a natural growth and not an instrument which we shape for our own purposes.
Now, it is clear that the decline of a language must ultimately have political and economic causes: it is not due simply to the bad influence of this or that individual writer. But an effect can become a cause, reinforcing the original cause and producing the same effect in an intensified form, and so on indefinitely. A man may take to drink because he feels himself to be a failure, and then fail all the more completely because he drinks. It is rather the same thing that is happening to the English language. It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts. The point is that the process is reversible. Modern English, especially written English, is full of bad habits which spread by imitation and which can be avoided if one is willing to take the necessary trouble. If one gets rid of these habits one can think more clearly, and to think clearly is a necessary first step towards political regeneration: so that the fight against bad English is not frivolous and is not the exclusive concern of professional writers. I will come back to this presently, and I hope that by that time the meaning of what I have said here will have become clearer. Meanwhile, here are five specimens of the English language as it is now habitually written.
These five passages have not been picked out because they are especially bad—I could have quoted far worse if I had chosen—but because they illustrate various of the mental vices from which we now suffer. They are a little below the average, but are fairly representative samples. I number them so that I can refer back to them when necessary:
(1) I am not, indeed, sure whether it is not true to say that the Milton who once seemed not unlike a seventeenth-century Shelley had not become, out of an experience ever more bitter in each year, more alien [sic] to the founder of that Jesuit sect which nothing could induce him to tolerate.
Professor Harold Laski (Essay in Freedom of Expression)
(2) Above all, we cannot play ducks and drakes with a native battery of idioms which prescribes such egregious collocations of vocables as the basic put up with for tolerate or put at a loss for bewilder.
Professor Lancelot Hogben (Interglossa)
(3) On the one side we have the free personality: by definition it is not neurotic, for it has neither conflict nor dream. Its desires, such as they are, are transparent, for they are just what institutional approval keeps in the forefront of consciousness; another institutional pattern would alter their number and intensity; there is little in them that is natural, irreducible, or culturally dangerous. But on the other side, the social bond itself is nothing but the mutual reflection of these self-secure integrities. Recall the definition of love. Is not this the very picture of a small academic? Where is there a place in this hall of mirrors for either personality or fraternity?
Essay on psychology in Politics (New York)
(4) All the “best people” from the gentlemen’s clubs, and all the frantic fascist captains, united in common hatred of Socialism and bestial horror of the rising tide of the mass revolutionary movement, have turned to acts of provocation, to foul incendiarism, to medieval legends of poisoned wells, to legalize their own destruction of proletarian organizations, and rouse the agitated petty-bourgeoisie to chauvinistic fervour on behalf of the fight against the revolutionary way out of the crisis.
Communist pamphlet
(5) If a new spirit is to be infused into this old country, there is one thorny and contentious reform which must be tackled, and that is the humanization and galvanization of the B.B.C. Timidity here will bespeak cancer and atrophy of the soul. The heart of Britain may be sound and of strong beat, for instance, but the British lion’s roar at present is like that of Bottom in Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream—as gentle as any sucking dove. A virile new Britain cannot continue indefinitely to be traduced in the eyes or rather ears, of the world by the effete languors of Langham Place, brazenly masquerading as “standard English.” When the Voice of Britain is heard at nine o’clock, better far and infinitely less ludicrous to hear aitches honestly dropped than the present priggish, inflated, inhibited, school-ma’amish arch braying of blameless bashful mewing maidens!
Letter in Tribune
Each of these passages has faults of its own, but, quite apart from avoidable ugliness, two qualities are common to all of them. The first is staleness of imagery: the other is lack of precision. The writer either has a meaning and cannot express it, or he inadvertently says something else, or he is almost indifferent as to whether his words mean anything or not. This mixture of vagueness and sheer incompetence is the most marked characteristic of modern English prose, and especially of any kind of political writing. As soon as certain topics are raised, the concrete melts into the abstract and no one seems able to think of turns of speech that are not hackneyed: prose consists less and less of words chosen for the sake of their meaning, and more and more of phrases tacked together like the sections of a prefabricated hen-house. I list below, with notes and examples, various of the tricks by means of which the work of prose-construction is habitually dodged:
Dying Metaphors
A newly invented metaphor assists thought by evoking a visual image, while on the other hand a metaphor which is technically “dead” (e.g., iron resolution) has in effect reverted to being an ordinary word and can generally be used without loss of vividness. But in between these two classes there is a huge dump of worn-out metaphors which have lost all evocative power and are merely used because they save people the trouble of inventing phrases for themselves. Examples are: Ring the changes on, take up the cudgels for, toe the line, ride roughshod over, stand shoulder to shoulder with, play into the hands of, no axe to grind, grist to the mill, fishing in troubled waters, on the order of the day, Achilles’ heel, swan song, hotbed. Many of these are used without knowledge of their meaning (what is a “rift,” for instance?), and incompatible metaphors are frequently mixed, a sure sign that the writer is not interested in what he is saying. Some metaphors now current have been twisted out of their original meaning without those who use them even being aware of the fact. For example, toe the line is sometimes written tow the line. Another example is the hammer and the anvil, now always used with the implication that the anvil gets the worst of it. In real life it is always the anvil that breaks the hammer, never the other way about: a writer who stopped to think what he was saying would be aware of this, and would avoid perverting the original phrase.
Operators or Verbal False Limbs
These save the trouble of picking out appropriate verbs and nouns, and at the same time pad each sentence with extra syllables which give it an appearance of symmetry. Characteristic phrases are: render inoperative, militate against, make contact with, be subjected to, give rise to, give grounds for, have the effect of, play a leading part (role) in, make itself felt, take effect, exhibit a tendency to, serve the purpose of, etc., etc. The keynote is the elimination of simple verbs. Instead of being a single word, such as break, stop, spoil, mend, kill, a verb becomes a phrase, made up of a noun or adjective tacked on to some general-purposes verb such as prove, serve, form, play, render. In addition, the passive voice is wherever possible used in preference to the active, and noun constructions are used instead of gerunds (by examination of instead of by examining). The range of verbs is further cut down by means of the -ize and de- formation, and the banal statements are given an appearance of profundity by means of the not un- formation. Simple conjunctions and prepositions are replaced by such phrases as with respect to, having regard to, the fact that, by dint of, in view of, in the interests of, on the hypothesis that; and the ends of sentences are saved from anticlimax by such resounding commonplaces as greatly to be desired, cannot be left out of account, a development to be expected in the near future, deserving of serious consideration, brought to a satisfactory conclusion, and so on and so forth.
Pretentious Diction
Words like phenomenon, element, individual (as noun), objective, categorical, effective, virtual, basic, primary, promote, constitute, exhibit, exploit, utilize, eliminate, liquidate, are used to dress up simple statements and give an air of scientific impartiality to biased judgments. Adjectives like epoch-making, epic, historic, unforgettable, triumphant, age-old, inevitable, inexorable, veritable, are used to dignify the sordid processes of international politics, while writing that aims at glorifying war usually takes on an archaic color, its characteristic words being: realm, throne, chariot, mailed fist, trident, sword, shield, buckler, banner, jackboot, clarion. Foreign words and expressions such as cul de sac, ancien régime, deus ex machina, mutatis mutandis, status quo, gleichschaltung, weltanschauung, are used to give an air of culture and elegance. Except for the useful abbreviations i.e., e.g., and etc., there is no real need for any of the hundreds of foreign phrases now current in English. Bad writers, and especially scientific, political, and sociological writers, are nearly always haunted by the notion that Latin or Greek words are grander than Saxon ones, and unnecessary words like expedite, ameliorate, predict, extraneous, deracinated, clandestine, subaqueous, and hundreds of others constantly gain ground from their Anglo-Saxon opposite numbers.1 The jargon peculiar to Marxist writing (hyena, hangman, cannibal, petty bourgeois, these gentry, lackey, flunky, mad dog, White Guard, etc.) consists largely of words and phrases translated from Russian, German, or French; but the normal way of coining a new word is to use a Latin or Greek root with the appropriate affix and, where necessary, the -ize formation. It is often easier to make up words of this kind (deregionalize, impermissible, extramarital, nonfragmentatory, and so forth) than to think up the English words that will cover one’s meaning. The result, in general, is an increase in slovenliness and vagueness.
Meaningless Words
In certain kinds of writing, particularly in art criticism and literary criticism, it is normal to come across long passages which are almost completely lacking in meaning.2 Words like romantic, plastic, values, human, dead, sentimental, natural, vitality, as used in art criticism, are strictly meaningless in the sense that they not only do not point to any discoverable object, but are hardly ever expected to do so by the reader. When one critic writes, “The outstanding feature of Mr. X’s work is its living quality,” while another writes, “The immediately striking thing about Mr. X’s work is its peculiar deadness,” the reader accepts this as a simple difference of opinion. If words like black and white were involved, instead of the jargon words dead and living, he would see at once that language was being used in an improper way. Many political words are similarly abused. The word Fascism has now no meaning except in so far as it signifies “something not desirable.” The words democracy, socialism, freedom, patriotic, realistic, justice, have each of them several different meanings which cannot be reconciled with one another. In the case of a word like democracy, not only is there no agreed definition, but the attempt to make one is resisted from all sides. It is almost universally felt that when we call a country democratic we are praising it: consequently the defenders of every kind of régime claim that it is a democracy, and fear that they might have to stop using the word if it were tied down to any one meaning. Words of this kind are often used in a consciously dishonest way. That is, the person who uses them has his own private definition, but allows his hearer to think he means something quite different. Statements like Marshal Pétain was a true patriot, The Soviet Press is the freest in the world, The Catholic Church is opposed to persecution, are almost always made with intent to deceive. Other words used in variable meanings, in most cases more or less dishonestly, are: class, totalitarian, science, progressive, reactionary, bourgeois, equality.
Now that I have made this catalog of swindles and perversions, let me give another example of the kind of writing that they lead to. This time it must of its nature be an imaginary one. I am going to translate a passage of good English into modern English of the worst sort. Here is a well-known verse from Ecclesiastes:
I returned and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favor to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all.
Here it is in modern English:
Objective consideration of contemporary phenomena compels the conclusion that success or failure in competitive activities exhibits no tendency to be commensurate with innate capacity, but that a considerable element of the unpredictable must invariably be taken into account.
This is a parody, but not a very gross one. Exhibit (3), above, for instance, contains several patches of the same kind of English. It will be seen that I have not made a full translation. The beginning and ending of the sentence follow the original meaning fairly closely, but in the middle the concrete illustrations—race, battle, bread—dissolve into the vague phrase “success or failure in competitive activities.” This had to be so, because no modern writer of the kind I am discussing—no one capable of using phrases like “objective consideration of contemporary phenomena”—would ever tabulate his thoughts in that precise and detailed way. The whole tendency of modern prose is away from concreteness. Now analyze these two sentences a little more closely. The first contains forty-nine words but only sixty syllables, and all its words are those of everyday life. The second contains thirty-eight words of ninety syllables: eighteen of its words are from Latin roots, and one from Greek. The first sentence contains six vivid images, and only one phrase (“time and chance”) that could be called vague. The second contains not a single fresh, arresting phrase, and in spite of its ninety syllables it gives only a shortened version of the meaning contained in the first. Yet without a doubt it is the second kind of sentence that is gaining ground in modern English. I do not want to exaggerate. This kind of writing is not yet universal, and outcrops of simplicity will occur here and there in the worst-written page. Still, if you or I were told to write a few lines on the uncertainty of human fortunes, we should probably come much nearer to my imaginary sentence than to the one from Ecclesiastes.
As I have tried to show, modern writing at its worst does not consist in picking out words for the sake of their meaning and inventing images in order to make the meaning clearer. It consists in gumming together long strips of words which have already been set in order by someone else, and making the results presentable by sheer humbug. The attraction of this way of writing is that it is easy. It is easier—even quicker, once you have the habit—to say In my opinion it is a not unjustifiable assumption that than to say I think. If you use ready-made phrases, you not only don’t have to hunt about for words; you also don’t have to bother with the rhythms of your sentences, since these phrases are generally so arranged as to be more or less euphonious. When you are composing in a hurry—when you are dictating to a stenographer, for instance, or making a public speech—it is natural to fall into a pretentious, Latinized style. Tags like a consideration which we should do well to bear in mind or a conclusion to which all of us would readily assent will save many a sentence from coming down with a bump. By using stale metaphors, similes, and idioms, you save much mental effort, at the cost of leaving your meaning vague, not only for your reader but for yourself. This is the significance of mixed metaphors. The sole aim of a metaphor is to call up a visual image. When these images clash—as in The Fascist octopus has sung its swan song, the jackboot is thrown into the melting pot—it can be taken as certain that the writer is not seeing a mental image of the objects he is naming; in other words he is not really thinking. Look again at the examples I gave at the beginning of this essay. Professor Laski (1) uses five negatives in fifty-three words. One of these is superfluous, making nonsense of the whole passage, and in addition there is the slip alien for akin, making further nonsense, and several avoidable pieces of clumsiness which increase the general vagueness. Professor Hogben (2) plays ducks and drakes with a battery which is able to write prescriptions, and, while disapproving of the everyday phrase put up with, is unwilling to look egregious up in the dictionary and see what it means. (3), if one takes an uncharitable attitude towards it, is simply meaningless: probably one could work out its intended meaning by reading the whole of the article in which it occurs. In (4), the writer knows more or less what he wants to say, but an accumulation of stale phrases chokes him like tea leaves blocking a sink. In (5), words and meaning have almost parted company. People who write in this manner usually have a general emotional meaning—they dislike one thing and want to express solidarity with another—but they are not interested in the detail of what they are saying. A scrupulous writer, in every sentence that he writes, will ask himself at least four questions, thus: What am I trying to say? What words will express it? What image or idiom will make it clearer? Is this image fresh enough to have an effect? And he will probably ask himself two more: Could I put it more shortly? Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly? But you are not obliged to go to all this trouble. You can shirk it by simply throwing your mind open and letting the ready-made phrases come crowding in. They will construct your sentences for you—even think your thoughts for you, to a certain extent—and at need they will perform the important service of partially concealing your meaning even from yourself. It is at this point that the special connection between politics and the debasement of language becomes clear.
In our time it is broadly true that political writing is bad writing. Where it is not true, it will generally be found that the writer is some kind of rebel, expressing his private opinions and not a “party line.” Orthodoxy, of whatever color, seems to demand a lifeless, imitative style. The political dialects to be found in pamphlets, leading articles, manifestos, White Papers, and the speeches of under-secretaries do, of course, vary from party to party, but they are all alike in that one almost never finds in them a fresh, vivid, home-made turn of speech. When one watches some tired hack on the platform mechanically repeating the familiar phrases—bestial atrocities, iron heel, bloodstained tyranny, free peoples of the world, stand shoulder to shoulder—one often has a curious feeling that one is not watching a live human being but some kind of dummy: a feeling which suddenly becomes stronger at moments when the light catches the speaker’s spectacles and turns them into blank discs which seem to have no eyes behind them. And this is not altogether fanciful. A speaker who uses that kind of phraseology has gone some distance towards turning himself into a machine. The appropriate noises are coming out of his larynx, but his brain is not involved as it would be if he were choosing his words for himself. If the speech he is making is one that he is accustomed to make over and over again, he may be almost unconscious of what he is saying, as one is when one utters the responses in church. And this reduced state of consciousness, if not indispensable, is at any rate favorable to political conformity.
In our time, political speech and writing are largely the defense of the indefensible. Things like the continuance of British rule in India, the Russian purges and deportations, the dropping of the atom bombs on Japan, can indeed be defended, but only by arguments which are too brutal for most people to face, and which do not square with the professed aims of political parties. Thus political language has to consist largely of euphemism, question-begging, and sheer cloudy vagueness. Defenseless villages are bombarded from the air, the inhabitants driven out into the countryside, the cattle machine-gunned, the huts set on fire with incendiary bullets: this is called pacification. Millions of peasants are robbed of their farms and sent trudging along the roads with no more than they can carry: this is called transfer of population or rectification of frontiers. People are imprisoned for years without trial, or shot in the back of the neck, or sent to die of scurvy in Arctic lumber camps: this is called elimination of unreliable elements. Such phraseology is needed if one wants to name things without calling up mental pictures of them. Consider for instance some comfortable English professor defending Russian totalitarianism. He cannot say outright, “I believe in killing off your opponents when you can get good results by doing so.” Probably, therefore, he will say something like this:
“While freely conceding that the Soviet régime exhibits certain features which the humanitarian may be inclined to deplore, we must, I think, agree that a certain curtailment of the right to political opposition is an unavoidable concomitant of transitional periods, and that the rigors which the Russian people have been called upon to undergo have been amply justified in the sphere of concrete achievement.”
The inflated style is itself a kind of euphemism. A mass of Latin words falls upon the facts like soft snow, blurring the outlines and covering up all the details. The great enemy of clear language is insincerity. When there is a gap between one’s real and one’s declared aims, one turns as it were instinctively to long words and exhausted idioms, like a cuttlefish squirting out ink. In our age there is no such thing as “keeping out of politics.” All issues are political issues, and politics itself is a mass of lies, evasions, folly, hatred, and schizophrenia. When the general atmosphere is bad, language must suffer. I should expect to find—this is a guess which I have not sufficient knowledge to verify—that the German, Russian, and Italian languages have all deteriorated in the last ten or fifteen years, as a result of dictatorship.
But if thought corrupts language, language can also corrupt thought. A bad usage can spread by tradition and imitation, even among people who should and do know better. The debased language that I have been discussing is in some ways very convenient. Phrases like a not unjustifiable assumption, leaves much to be desired, would serve no good purpose, a consideration which we should do well to bear in mind, are a continuous temptation, a packet of aspirins always at one’s elbow. Look back through this essay, and for certain you will find that I have again and again committed the very faults I am protesting against. By this morning’s post I have received a pamphlet dealing with conditions in Germany. The author tells me that he “felt impelled” to write it. I open it at random, and here is almost the first sentence that I see: “(The Allies) have an opportunity not only of achieving a radical transformation of Germany’s social and political structure in such a way as to avoid a nationalistic reaction in Germany itself, but at the same time of laying the foundations of a cooperative and unified Europe.” You see, he “feels impelled” to write—feels, presumably, that he has something new to say—and yet his words, like cavalry horses answering the bugle, group themselves automatically into the familiar dreary pattern. This invasion of one’s mind by ready-made phrases (lay the foundations, achieve a radical transformation) can only be prevented if one is constantly on guard against them, and every such phrase anaesthetizes a portion of one’s brain.
I said earlier that the decadence of our language is probably curable. Those who deny this would argue, if they produced an argument at all, that language merely reflects existing social conditions, and that we cannot influence its development by any direct tinkering with words and constructions. So far as the general tone or spirit of a language goes, this may be true, but it is not true in detail. Silly words and expressions have often disappeared, not through any evolutionary process but owing to the conscious action of a minority. Two recent examples were explore every avenue and leave no stone unturned, which were killed by the jeers of a few journalists. There is a long list of flyblown metaphors which could similarly be got rid of if enough people would interest themselves in the job; and it should also be possible to laugh the not un- formation out of existence,3 to reduce the amount of Latin and Greek in the average sentence, to drive out foreign phrases and strayed scientific words, and, in general, to make pretentiousness unfashionable. But all these are minor points. The defense of the English language implies more than this, and perhaps it is best to start by saying what it does not imply.
To begin with it has nothing to do with archaism, with the salvaging of obsolete words and turns of speech, or with the setting up of a “standard English” which must never be departed from. On the contrary, it is especially concerned with the scrapping of every word or idiom which has outworn its usefulness. It has nothing to do with correct grammar and syntax, which are of no importance so long as one makes one’s meaning clear, or with the avoidance of Americanisms, or with having what is called a “good prose style.” On the other hand it is not concerned with fake simplicity and the attempt to make written English colloquial. Nor does it even imply in every case preferring the Saxon word to the Latin one, though it does imply using the fewest and shortest words that will cover one’s meaning. What is above all needed is to let the meaning choose the word, and not the other way about. In prose, the worst thing one can do with words is to surrender to them. When you think of a concrete object, you think wordlessly, and then, if you want to describe the thing you have been visualizing you probably hunt about till you find the exact words that seem to fit. When you think of something abstract you are more inclined to use words from the start, and unless you make a conscious effort to prevent it, the existing dialect will come rushing in and do the job for you, at the expense of blurring or even changing your meaning. Probably it is better to put off using words as long as possible and get one’s meaning as clear as one can through pictures or sensations. Afterwards one can choose—not simply accept—the phrases that will best cover the meaning, and then switch round and decide what impression one’s words are likely to make on another person. This last effort of the mind cuts out all stale or mixed images, all prefabricated phrases, needless repetitions, and humbug and vagueness generally. But one can often be in doubt about the effect of a word or a phrase, and one needs rules that one can rely on when instinct fails. I think the following rules will cover most cases:
1. Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print.
2. Never use a long word where a short one will do.
3. If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
4. Never use the passive where you can use the active.
5. Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent.
6. Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous.
These rules sound elementary, and so they are, but they demand a deep change of attitude in anyone who has grown used to writing in the style now fashionable. One could keep all of them and still write bad English, but one could not write the kind of stuff that I quoted in those five specimens at the beginning of this article.
I have not here been considering the literary use of language, but merely language as an instrument for expressing and not for concealing or preventing thought. Stuart Chase and others have come near to claiming that all abstract words are meaningless, and have used this as a pretext for advocating a kind of political quietism. Since you don’t know what Fascism is, how can you struggle against Fascism? One need not swallow such absurdities as this, but one ought to recognize that the present political chaos is connected with the decay of language, and that one can probably bring about some improvement by starting at the verbal end. If you simplify your English, you are freed from the worst follies of orthodoxy. You cannot speak any of the necessary dialects, and when you make a stupid remark its stupidity will be obvious, even to yourself. Political language—and with variations this is true of all political parties, from Conservatives to Anarchists—is designed to make lies sound truthful and murder respectable, and to give an appearance of solidity to pure wind. One cannot change this all in a moment, but one can at least change one’s own habits, and from time to time one can even, if one jeers loudly enough, send some worn-out and useless phrase—some jackboot, Achilles’ heel, hotbed, melting pot, acid test, veritable inferno, or other lump of verbal refuse—into the dustbin where it belongs.
READING ARGUMENTS
1. What two qualities do Orwell’s “five specimens” (para. 2) share? According to Orwell, what is the “most marked characteristic of modern English prose, and especially of any kind of political writing” (4)?
2. Where in this essay does Orwell use deductive reasoning?
3. How does Orwell use cause-and-effect argument in his essay? For instance, how does he use it to explain why political speech and writing are bad? What other examples of cause-and-effect argument can you identify?
4. Orwell argues that “political language” consists “largely of euphemism, question-begging, and sheer cloudy vagueness” (13). What is a euphemism? What does “question-begging” mean?
5. Where does Orwell make a proposal argument? What does he propose?
WRITING ARGUMENTS
1. In paragraph 16, Orwell concedes, “Look back through this essay, and for certain you will find that I have again and again committed the very faults I am protesting against.” Find three examples of these “faults” in Orwell’s prose. Then, write a paragraph for each “fault,” explaining why it meets his standard for “bad” writing.
2. Surveying the state of the English language in 1946, Orwell asserts that “it is broadly true that political writing is bad writing” (para. 12). Is this still “broadly true”? Reread paragraphs 12 to 15 of Orwell’s essay. Then, develop your own argument about the language of contemporary politics, updating Orwell’s examples with contemporary examples.
THE OBLIGATION TO ENDURE
RACHEL CARSON
Rachel Carson (1907—1964) received a master’s degree in zoology and worked as editor-in-chief of publications for the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries. Her books include Under the Sea-Wind (1941); The Sea around Us (1951), a best seller and winner of the National Book Award; The Edge of the Sea (1955); and The Sense of Wonder (published in 1965 after her death). Her most famous work is Silent Spring (1962), from which “The Obligation to Endure” is drawn. In this book, Carson argues that agricultural pesticides are destructive to wildlife and to the environment, an idea that predates the modern environmental movement and to this day remains controversial. Silent Spring, an extremely influential work, led to bans of DDT as well as other chemicals.
The history of life on earth has been a history of interaction between living things and their surroundings. To a large extent, the physical form and the habits of the earth’s vegetation and its animal life have been molded by the environment. Considering the whole span of earthly time, the opposite effect, in which life actually modifies its surroundings, has been relatively slight. Only within the moment of time represented by the present century has one species—man—acquired significant power to alter the nature of his world.
During the past quarter century this power has not only increased to one of disturbing magnitude but it has changed in character. The most alarming of all man’s assaults upon the environment is the contamination of air, earth, rivers, and sea with dangerous and even lethal materials. This pollution is for the most part irrecoverable; the chain of evil it initiates not only in the world that must support life but in living tissues is for the most part irreversible. In this now universal contamination of the environment, chemicals are the sinister and little-recognized partners of radiation in changing the very nature of the world—the very nature of its life. Strontium 90, released through nuclear explosions into the air, comes to earth in rain or drifts down as fallout, lodges in soil, enters into the grass or corn or wheat grown there, and in time takes up its abode in the bones of a human being, there to remain until his death. Similarly, chemicals sprayed on croplands or forests or gardens lie long in soil, entering into living organisms, passing from one to another in a chain of poisoning and death. Or they pass mysteriously by underground streams until they emerge and, through the alchemy of air and sunlight, combine into new forms that kill vegetation, sicken cattle, and work unknown harm on those who drink from once pure wells. As Albert Schweitzer has said, “Man can hardly even recognize the devils of his own creation.”
It took hundreds of millions of years to produce the life that now inhabits the earth—eons of time in which that developing and evolving and diversifying life reached a state of adjustment and balance with its surroundings. The environment, rigorously shaping and directing the life it supported, contained elements that were hostile as well as supporting. Certain rocks gave out dangerous radiation; even within the light of the sun, from which all life draws its energy, there were short-wave radiations with power to injure. Given time—time not in years but in millennia—life adjusts, and a balance has been reached. For time is the essential ingredient; but in the modern world there is no time.
The rapidity of change and the speed with which new situations are created follow the impetuous and heedless pace of man rather than the deliberate pace of nature. Radiation is no longer merely the background radiation of rocks, the bombardment of cosmic rays, the ultraviolet of the sun that have existed before there was any life on earth; radiation is now the unnatural creation of man’s tampering with the atom. The chemicals to which life is asked to make its adjustment are no longer merely the calcium and silica and copper and all the rest of the minerals washed out of the rocks and carried in rivers to the sea; they are the synthetic creations of man’s inventive mind, brewed in his laboratories, and having no counterparts in nature.
To adjust to these chemicals would require time on the scale that is nature’s; it would require not merely the years of a man’s life but the life of generations. And even this, were it by some miracle possible, would be futile, for the new chemicals come from our laboratories in an endless stream; almost five hundred annually find their way into actual use in the United States alone. The figure is staggering and its implications are not easily grasped—500 new chemicals to which the bodies of men and animals are required somehow to adapt each year, chemicals totally outside the limits of biologic experience.
Among them are many that are used in man’s war against nature. Since the mid-1940’s over 200 basic chemicals have been created for use in killing insects, weeds, rodents, and other organisms described in the modern vernacular as “pests”; and they are sold under several thousand different brand names.
These sprays, dusts, and aerosols are now applied almost universally to farms, gardens, forests, and homes—nonselective chemicals that have the power to kill every insect, the “good” and the “bad,” to still the song of birds and the leaping of fish in the streams, to coat the leaves with a deadly film, and to linger on in soil—all this though the intended target may be only a few weeds or insects. Can anyone believe it is possible to lay down such a barrage of poisons on the surface of the earth without making it unfit for all life? They should not be called “insecticides,” but “biocides.”
The whole process of spraying seems caught up in an endless spiral. Since DDTi was released for civilian use, a process of escalation has been going on in which ever more toxic materials must be found. This has happened because insects, in a triumphant vindication of Darwin’s principle of the survival of the fittest, have evolved super races immune to the particular insecticide used, hence a deadlier one has always to be developed—and then a deadlier one than that. It has happened also because, for reasons to be described later, destructive insects often undergo a “flareback,” or resurgence, after spraying, in numbers greater than before. Thus the chemical war is never won, and all life is caught in its violent crossfire.
Along with the possibility of the extinction of mankind by nuclear war, the central problem of our age has therefore become the contamination of man’s total environment with such substances of incredible potential for harm—substances that accumulate in the tissues of plants and animals and even penetrate the germ cells to shatter or alter the very material of heredity upon which the shape of the future depends.
Some would-be architects of our future look toward a time when it will be possible to alter the human germ plasm by design. But we may easily be doing so now by inadvertence, for many chemicals, like radiation, bring about gene mutations. It is ironic to think that man might determine his own future by something so seemingly trivial as the choice of an insect spray.
All this has been risked—for what? Future historians may well be amazed by our distorted sense of proportion. How could intelligent beings seek to control a few unwanted species by a method that contaminated the entire environment and brought the threat of disease and death even to their own kind? Yet this is precisely what we have done. We have done it, moreover, for reasons that collapse the moment we examine them. We are told that the enormous and expanding use of pesticides is necessary to maintain farm production. Yet is our real problem not one of overproduction? Our farms, despite measures to remove acreages from production and to pay farmers not to produce, have yielded such a staggering excess of crops that the American taxpayer in 1962 is paying out more than one billion dollars a year as the total carrying cost of the surplus-food storage program. And is the situation helped when one branch of the Agriculture Department tries to reduce production while another states, as it did in 1958, “It is believed generally that reduction of crop acreages under provisions of the Soil Bank will stimulate interest in use of chemicals to obtain maximum production on the land retained in crops.”
All this is not to say there is no insect problem and no need of control. I am saying, rather, that control must be geared to realities, not to mythical situations, and that the methods employed must be such that they do not destroy us along with the insects.
The problem whose attempted solution has brought such a train of disaster in its wake is an accompaniment of our modern way of life. Long before the age of man, insects inhabited the earth—a group of extraordinarily varied and adaptable beings. Over the course of time since man’s advent, a small percentage of the more than half a million species of insects have come into conflict with human welfare in two principal ways: as competitors for the food supply and as carriers of human disease.
Disease-carrying insects become important where human beings are crowded together, especially under conditions where sanitation is poor, as in time of natural disaster or war or in situations of extreme poverty and deprivation. Then control of some sort becomes necessary. It is a sobering fact, however, as we shall presently see, that the method of massive chemical control has had only limited success, and also threatens to worsen the very conditions it is intended to curb.
Under primitive agricultural conditions the farmer had few insect problems. These arose with the intensification of agriculture—the devotion of immense acreages to a single crop. Such a system set the stage for explosive increases in specific insect populations. Single-crop farming does not take advantage of the principles by which nature works; it is agriculture as an engineer might conceive it to be. Nature has introduced great variety into the landscape, but man has displayed a passion for simplifying it. Thus he undoes the built-in checks and balances by which nature holds the species within bounds. One important natural check is a limit on the amount of suitable habitat for each species. Obviously then, an insect that lives on wheat can build up its population to much higher levels on a farm devoted to wheat than on one in which wheat is intermingled with other crops to which the insect is not adapted.
The same thing happens in other situations. A generation or more ago, the towns of large areas of the United States lined their streets with the noble elm tree. Now the beauty they hopefully created is threatened with complete destruction as disease sweeps through the elms, carried by a beetle that would have only limited chance to build up large populations and to spread from tree to tree if the elms were only occasional trees in a richly diversified planting.
Another factor in the modern insect problem is one that must be viewed against a background of geologic and human history: the spreading of thousands of different kinds of organisms from their native homes to invade new territories. This worldwide migration has been studied and graphically described by the British ecologist Charles Elton in his recent book The Ecology of Invasions. During the Cretaceous Period, some hundred million years ago, flooding seas cut many land bridges between continents and living things found themselves confined in what Elton calls “colossal separate nature reserves.” There, isolated from others of their kind, they developed many new species. When some of the land masses were joined again, about 15 million years ago, these species began to move out into new territories—a movement that is not only still in progress but is now receiving considerable assistance from man.
The importation of plants is the primary agent in the modern spread of species, for animals have almost invariably gone along with the plants, quarantine being a comparatively recent and not completely effective innovation. The United States Office of Plant Introduction alone has introduced almost 200,000 species and varieties of plants from all over the world. Nearly half of the 180 or so major insect enemies of plants in the United States are accidental imports from abroad, and most of them have come as hitchhikers on plants.
In new territory, out of reach of the restraining hand of the natural enemies that kept down its numbers in its native land, an invading plant or animal is able to become enormously abundant. Thus it is no accident that our most troublesome insects are introduced species.
These invasions, both the naturally occurring and those dependent on human assistance, are likely to continue indefinitely. Quarantine and massive chemical campaigns are only extremely expensive ways of buying time. We are faced, according to Dr. Elton, “with a life-and-death need not just to find new technological means of suppressing this plant or that animal”; instead we need the basic knowledge of animal populations and their relations to their surroundings that will “promote an even balance and damp down the explosive power of outbreaks and new invasions.”
Much of the necessary knowledge is now available but we do not use it. We train ecologists in our universities and even employ them in our governmental agencies but we seldom take their advice. We allow the chemical death rain to fall as though there were no alternative, whereas in fact there are many, and our ingenuity could soon discover many more if given opportunity.
Have we fallen into a mesmerized state that makes us accept as inevitable that which is inferior or detrimental, as though having lost the will or the vision to demand that which is good? Such thinking, in the words of the ecologist Paul Shepard, “idealizes life with only its head out of water, inches above the limits of toleration of the corruption of its own environment. . . . Why should we tolerate a diet of weak poisons, a home in insipid surroundings, a circle of acquaintances who are not quite our enemies, the noise of motors with just enough relief to prevent insanity? Who would want to live in a world which is just not quite fatal?”
Yet such a world is pressed upon us. The crusade to create a chemically sterile, insect-free world seems to have engendered a fanatic zeal on the part of many specialists and most of the so-called control agencies. On every hand there is evidence that those engaged in spraying operations exercise a ruthless power. “The regulatory entomologists . . . function as prosecutor, judge and jury, tax assessor and collector and sheriff to enforce their own orders,” said Connecticut entomologist Neely Turner. The most flagrant abuses go unchecked in both state and federal agencies.
It is not my contention that chemical insecticides must never be used. I do contend that we have put poisonous and biologically potent chemicals indiscriminately into the hands of persons largely or wholly ignorant of their potentials for harm. We have subjected enormous numbers of people to contact with these poisons, without their consent and often without their knowledge. If the Bill of Rights contains no guarantee that a citizen shall be secure against lethal poisons distributed either by private individuals or by public officials, it is surely only because our forefathers, despite their considerable wisdom and foresight, could conceive of no such problem.
I contend, furthermore, that we have allowed these chemicals to be used with little or no advance investigation of their effect on soil, water, wildlife, and man himself. Future generations are unlikely to condone our lack of prudent concern for the integrity of the natural world that supports all life.
There is still very limited awareness of the nature of the threat. This is an era of specialists, each of whom sees his own problem and is unaware of or intolerant of the larger frame into which it fits. It is also an era dominated by industry, in which the right to make a dollar at whatever cost is seldom challenged. When the public protests, confronted with some obvious evidence of damaging results of pesticide applications, it is fed little tranquilizing pills of half truth. We urgently need an end to these false assurances, to the sugar coating of unpalatable facts. It is the public that is being asked to assume the risks that the insect controllers calculate. The public must decide whether it wishes to continue on the present road, and it can do so only when in full possession of the facts. In the words of Jean Rostand, “The obligation to endure gives us the right to know.”
READING ARGUMENTS
1. In her opening paragraphs, Carson makes broad and provocative claims about human beings and their place in the natural world. What evidence does she use to support these assertions? Do you find this evidence convincing?
2. According to Carson, what problem (in addition to the threat of nuclear war) was the greatest threat to human beings in the middle of the twentieth century?
3. In what sense is “The Obligation to Endure” an evaluation argument?
4. In paragraph 2, Carson refers to “man’s assaults upon the environment.” How does she characterize human beings throughout her essay? For example, how does she describe their interaction with the environment? How does her characterization of human beings support her essay’s main point?
5. Where in her essay does Carson address opposing arguments? Do you think she refutes them effectively? Why or why not?
WRITING ARGUMENTS
1. Carson contrasts the “heedless pace of man” with the “deliberate pace of nature” (para. 4). Is this distinction valid? Do you think her view of people and their relationship with the environment is accurate? For example, do you think human beings are engaged in a “war against nature” (6)? Do you generally share Carson’s view of scientific progress and industrial society? Write an argumentative essay that takes a stand for or against her views.
2. As a result of Carson’s book, DDT was banned worldwide. Since then, the World Health Organization has called for its limited use indoors in African countries to combat malaria, but it remains banned in the United States. Given the dramatic rise of insect-borne diseases (such as the West Nile virus, the Zika virus, Lyme disease, and Chagas disease), do you think the United States should reconsider its response to Carson’s book and permit the use of DDT in some situations? Write an essay explaining your position.
i Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, a synthetic pesticide that was widely used to control disease-spreading insect populations
THE IMPORTANCE OF WORK
BETTY FRIEDAN
An activist, an author, and the first president of the National Organization for Women, Betty Friedan (1921—2006) sparked the second wave of American feminism with her manifesto The Feminine Mystique. This 1963 book examined the “problem that has no name”—the deep dissatisfaction of American women, who were trapped by domestic roles and feminine ideals that limited their individuality, freedom, and growth. In the following excerpt from this book, Friedan argues that women need “to break out of their comfortable concentration camps”—a metaphor that, like the book, remains shocking and controversial more than fifty years later.
The question of how a person can most fully realize his own capacities and thus achieve identity has become an important concern of the philosophers and the social and psychological thinkers of our time—and for good reason. Thinkers of other times put forth the idea that people were, to a great extent, defined by the work they did. The work that a man had to do to eat, to stay alive, to meet the physical necessities of his environment, dictated his identity. And in this sense, when work was seen merely as a means of survival, human identity was dictated by biology.
But today the problem of human identity has changed. For the work that defined man’s place in society and his sense of himself has also changed man’s world. Work, and the advance of knowledge, has lessened man’s dependence on his environment; his biology and the work he must do for biological survival are no longer sufficient to define his identity. This can be most clearly seen in our own abundant society; men no longer need to work all day to eat. They have an unprecedented freedom to choose the kind of work they will do; they also have an unprecedented amount of time apart from the hours and days that must actually be spent in making a living. And suddenly one realizes the significance of today’s identity crisis—for women, and increasingly, for men. One sees the human significance of work—not merely as the means of biological survival, but as the giver of self and the transcender of self, as the creator of human identity and human evolution.
For “self-realization” or “self-fulfillment” or “identity” does not come from looking into a mirror in rapt contemplation of one’s own image. Those who have most fully realized themselves, in a sense that can be recognized by the human mind even though it cannot be clearly defined, have done so in the service of a human purpose larger than themselves. Men from varying disciplines have used different words for this mysterious process from which comes the sense of self. The religious mystics, the philosophers, Marx, Freud—all had different names for it: man finds himself by losing himself; man is defined by his relation to the means of production; the ego, the self, grows through understanding and mastering reality—through work and love.
The identity crisis, which has been noted by Erik Eriksoni and others in recent years in the American man, seems to occur for lack of, and be cured by finding, the work, or cause, or purpose that evokes his own creativity. Some never find it, for it does not come from busy-work or punching a time clock. It does not come from just making a living, working by formula, finding a secure spot as an organization man. The very argument, by Riesman and others, that man no longer finds identity in the work defined as a paycheck job, assumes that identity for man comes through creative work of his own that contributes to the human community: the core of the self becomes aware, becomes real, and grows through work that carries forward human society.
Work, the shopworn staple of the economists, has become the new frontier of psychology. Psychiatrists have long used “occupational therapy” with patients in mental hospitals; they have recently discovered that to be of real psychological value, it must be not just “therapy,” but real work, serving a real purpose in the community. And work can now be seen as the key to the problem that has no name. The identity crisis of American women began a century ago, as more and more of the work important to the world, more and more of the work that used their human abilities and through which they were able to find self-realization, was taken from them.
Until, and even into, the last century, strong, capable women were needed to pioneer our new land; with their husbands, they ran the farms and plantations and Western homesteads. These women were respected and self-respecting members of a society whose pioneering purpose centered in the home. Strength and independence, responsibility and self-confidence, self-discipline and courage, freedom and equality were part of the American character for both men and women, in all the first generations. The women who came by steerage from Ireland, Italy, Russia, and Poland worked beside their husbands in the sweatshops and the laundries, learned the new language, and saved to send their sons and daughters to college. Women were never quite as “feminine,” or held in as much contempt, in America as they were in Europe. American women seemed to European travelers, long before our time, less passive, childlike, and feminine than their own wives in France or Germany or England. By an accident of history, American women shared in the work of society longer, and grew with the men. Grade- and high-school education for boys and girls alike was almost always the rule; and in the West, where women shared the pioneering work the longest, even the universities were coeducational from the beginning.
The identity crisis for women did not begin in America until the fire and strength and ability of the pioneer women were no longer needed, no longer used, in the middle-class homes of the Eastern and Midwestern cities, when the pioneering was done and men began to build the new society in industries and professions outside the home. But the daughters of the pioneer women had grown too used to freedom and work to be content with leisure and passive femininity.
It was not an American, but a South African woman, Mrs. Olive Schreiner, who warned at the turn of the century that the quality and quantity of women’s functions in the social universe was decreasing as fast as civilization was advancing; that if women did not win back their right to a full share of honored and useful work, woman’s mind and muscle would weaken in a parasitic state; her offspring, male and female, would weaken progressively, and civilization itself would deteriorate.
The feminists saw clearly that education and the right to participate in the more advanced work of society were women’s greatest needs. They fought for and won the rights to new, fully human identity for women. But how very few of their daughters and granddaughters have chosen to use their education and their abilities for any large creative purpose, for responsible work in society? How many of them have been deceived, or have deceived themselves, into clinging to the outgrown, childlike femininity of “Occupation: housewife”?
It was not a minor matter, their mistaken choice. We now know that the same range of potential ability exists for women as for men. Women, as well as men, can only find their identity in work that uses their full capacities. A woman cannot find her identity through others—her husband, her children. She cannot find it in the dull routine of housework. As thinkers of every age have said, it is only when a human being faces squarely the fact that he can forfeit his own life, that he becomes truly aware of himself, and begins to take his existence seriously. Sometimes this awareness comes only at the moment of death. Sometimes it comes from a more subtle facing of death: the death of self in passive conformity, in meaningless work. The feminine mystique prescribes just such a living death for women. Faced with the slow death of self, the American woman must begin to take her life seriously.
“We measure ourselves by many standards,” said the great American psychologist William James, nearly a century ago. “Our strength and our intelligence, our wealth and even our good luck, are things which warm our heart and make us feel ourselves a match for life. But deeper than all such things, and able to suffice unto itself without them, is the sense of the amount of effort which we can put forth.”
If women do not put forth, finally, that effort to become all that they have it in them to become, they will forfeit their own humanity. A woman today who has no goal, no purpose, no ambition patterning her days into the future, making her stretch and grow beyond that small score of years in which her body can fill its biological function, is committing a kind of suicide. For that future half a century after the child-bearing years are over is a fact that an American woman cannot deny. Nor can she deny that as a housewife, the world is indeed rushing past her door while she just sits and watches. The terror she feels is real, if she has no place in that world.
The feminine mystique has succeeded in burying millions of American women alive. There is no way for these women to break out of their comfortable concentration camps except by finally putting forth an effort—that human effort which reaches beyond biology, beyond the narrow walls of home, to help shape the future. Only by such a personal commitment to the future can American women break out of the housewife trap and truly find fulfillment as wives and mothers—by fulfilling their own unique possibilities as separate human beings.
READING ARGUMENTS
1. In what respects is this essay a definition argument? What key term is being defined? Why is the meaning of this term essential to Friedan’s argument?
2. According to Friedan, how do modern people establish their identities? What gives these identities meaning?
3. In paragraph 6, Friedan writes about eighteenth- and nineteenth-century women who helped “to pioneer” the United States. How does she characterize these women? Why is their history important to her overall point?
4. In her next-to-last paragraph, Friedan refers to “a kind of suicide.” What does she mean?
WRITING ARGUMENTS
1. According to Friedan, men and women need work that satisfies their creativity and contributes to human society. Do you agree with her implication that doing paid work is the only way to create a meaningful life? Is it possible to find fulfillment by focusing on domestic tasks such as child-rearing? How do you view such questions in the context of your own life and career ambitions? Write an essay that responds to Friedan’s argument about the importance of work—that is, of meaningful paid employment.
2. This essay is from Friedan’s 1963 book The Feminine Mystique. Does the “identity crisis” that Friedan describes still exist? Many aspects of society have changed over the last five decades. Do her arguments seem relevant to men and women today? Why or why not? Write an essay that presents your point of view.
i Erik Erikson (1902—1994): A German-born American psychologist who coined the phrase “identity crisis”
IF BLACK ENGLISH ISN’T A LANGUAGE, THEN TELL ME, WHAT IS?
JAMES BALDWIN
Although the Harlem-born novelist, playwright, poet, and critic James Baldwin spent much of his life abroad, he remained an American writer. That is evident in well-known works like Go Tell It on the Mountain (1953), Notes of a Native Son (1955), and The Fire Next Time (1963), which explore the problem of race in the United States. He also wrote powerfully about class, culture, and sexual identity in both his fiction and his essays. Baldwin was especially perceptive about the complex relationship between “self” and “society,” as is clear in the following essay. For Baldwin, language “reveals the private identity, and connects one with, or divorces one from, the larger, public, or communal identity.”
The argument concerning the use, or the status, or the reality, of black English is rooted in American history and has absolutely nothing to do with the question the argument supposes itself to be posing. The argument has nothing to do with language itself but with the role of language. Language, incontestably, reveals the speaker. Language, also, far more dubiously, is meant to define the other—and, in this case, the other is refusing to be defined by a language that has never been able to recognize him.
People evolve a language in order to describe and thus control their circumstances or in order not to be submerged by a situation that they cannot articulate. (And if they cannot articulate it, they are submerged.) A Frenchman living in Paris speaks a subtly and crucially different language from that of the man living in Marseilles; neither sounds very much like a man living in Quebec; and they would all have great difficulty in apprehending what the man from Guadeloupe, or Martinique, is saying, to say nothing of the man from Senegal—although the “common” language of all these areas is French. But each has paid, and is paying, a different price for this “common” language, in which, as it turns out, they are not saying, and cannot be saying, the same things: They each have very different realities to articulate, or control.
What joins all languages, and all men, is the necessity to confront life, in order, not inconceivably, to outwit death: The price for this is the acceptance, and achievement, of one’s temporal identity. So that, for example, though it is not taught in the schools (and this has the potential of becoming a political issue) the south of France still clings to its ancient and musical Provençal, which resists being described as a “dialect.” And much of the tension in the Basque countries, and in Wales, is due to the Basque and Welsh determination not to allow their languages to be destroyed. This determination also feeds the flames in Ireland for among the many indignities the Irish have been forced to undergo at English hands is the English contempt for their language.
It goes without saying, then, that language is also a political instrument, means, and proof of power. It is the most vivid and crucial key to identity: It reveals the private identity, and connects one with, or divorces one from, the larger, public, or communal identity. There have been, and are, times and places, when to speak a certain language could be dangerous, even fatal. Or, one may speak the same language, but in such a way that one’s antecedents are revealed, or (one hopes) hidden. This is true in France, and is absolutely true in England: The range (and reign) of accents on that damp little island make England coherent for the English and totally incomprehensible for everyone else. To open your mouth in England is (if I may use black English) to “put your business in the street.” You have confessed your parents, your youth, your school, your salary, your self-esteem, and, alas, your future.
Now, I do not know what white Americans would sound like if there had never been any black people in the United States, but they would not sound the way they sound. Jazz, for example, is a very specific sexual term, as in jazz me, baby, but white people purified it into the Jazz Age. Sock it to me, which means, roughly, the same thing, has been adopted by Nathaniel Hawthorne’si descendants with no qualms or hesitations at all, along with let it all hang out and right on! Beat to his socks, which was once the black’s most total and despairing image of poverty, was transformed into a thing called the Beat Generation,ii which phenomenon was, largely, composed of uptight, middle-class white people, imitating poverty, trying to get down, to get with it, doing their thing, doing their despairing best to be funky, which we, the blacks, never dreamed of doing—we were funky, baby, like funk was going out of style.
Now, no one can eat his cake, and have it, too, and it is late in the day to attempt to penalize black people for having created a language that permits the nation its only glimpse of reality, a language without which the nation would be even more whipped than it is.
I say that the present skirmish is rooted in American history, and it is. Black English is the creation of the black diaspora. Blacks came to the United States chained to each other, but from different tribes. Neither could speak the other’s language. If two black people, at that bitter hour of the world’s history, had been able to speak to each other, the institution of chattel slavery could never have lasted as long as it did. Subsequently, the slave was given, under the eye, and the gun, of his master, Congo Square, and the Bible—or, in other words, and under those conditions, the slave began the formation of the black church, and it is within this unprecedented tabernacle that black English began to be formed. This was not, merely, as in the European example, the adoption of a foreign tongue, but an alchemy that transformed ancient elements into a new language: A language comes into existence by means of brutal necessity, and the rules of the language are dictated by what the language must convey.
There was a moment, in time, and in this place, when my brother, or my mother, or my father, or my sister, had to convey to me, for example, the danger in which I was standing from the white man standing just behind me, and to convey this with a speed and in a language, that the white man could not possibly understand, and that, indeed, he cannot understand, until today. He cannot afford to understand it. This understanding would reveal to him too much about himself and smash that mirror before which he has been frozen for so long.
Now, if this passion, this skill, this (to quote Toni Morrisoniii) “sheer intelligence,” this incredible music, the mighty achievement of having brought a people utterly unknown to, or despised by “history”—to have brought this people to their present, troubled, troubling, and unassailable and unanswerable place—if this absolutely unprecedented journey does not indicate that black English is a language, I am curious to know what definition of languages is to be trusted.
A people at the center of the western world, and in the midst of so hostile a population, has not endured and transcended by means of what is patronizingly called a “dialect.” We, the blacks, are in trouble, certainly, but we are not inarticulate because we are not compelled to defend a morality that we know to be a lie.
The brutal truth is that the bulk of the white people in America never had any interest in educating black people, except as this could serve white purposes. It is not the black child’s language that is despised. It is his experience. A child cannot be taught by anyone who despises him, and a child cannot afford to be fooled. A child cannot be taught by anyone whose demand, essentially, is that the child repudiate his experience, and all that gives him sustenance, and enter a limbo in which he will no longer be black, and in which he knows that he can never become white. Black people have lost too many black children that way.
And, after all, finally, in a country with standards so untrustworthy, a country that makes heroes of so many criminal mediocrities, a country unable to face why so many of the nonwhite are in prison, or on the needle, or standing, futureless, in the streets—it may very well be that both the child, and his elder, have concluded that they have nothing whatever to learn from the people of a country that has managed to learn so little.
READING ARGUMENTS
1. How does Baldwin use deductive reasoning in the first three paragraphs of this essay? Construct a syllogism for this argument. Do you find the syllogism’s conclusion persuasive? Why or why not?
2. Baldwin writes, “It goes without saying, then, that language is also a political instrument, means, and proof of power” (para. 4). What does he mean? Does this really go “without saying”? In other words, is this point self-evident? How does he support his claim?
3. According to Baldwin, black people “created a language that permits the nation its only glimpse of reality” (6). What does he mean? Do you agree? Why or why not?
WRITING ARGUMENTS
1. For Baldwin, language is the “most vivid and crucial key to identity” (para. 4). He points out that when you speak, you reveal “your parents, your youth, your school, your salary, your self-esteem, and, alas, your future” (4). In your experience, have you found this to be true? Are these aspects of your life evident in the sounds of your own speech? Write an essay that presents your point of view on these questions.
2. Baldwin discusses black contributions to American English. He also points out how white Americans “purified” (5) certain black terms from jazz culture and transformed black poverty into the “Beat Generation.” Why would people imitate the language of poverty? Is this process still at work today? If so, where do you see it? Address these questions in an argumentative essay, using examples to support your points.
i Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804—1864), an American novelist and short story writer whose work often focused on Puritan New England
ii A group of post—World War II American writers that valued freedom, authenticity, spontaneous expression, antimaterialism, and nonconformity
iii Toni Morrison (1931—), an African-American writer who won the 1993 Nobel Prize in Literature
APPENDIX A Writing literary arguments
Steve Dunwell/The Image Bank/Getty Images
When you write an essay about literature, you have a number of options. For example, you can write a response (expressing your reactions to a poem, play, or story), or you can write an explication (focusing on a work’s individual elements, such as a poem’s imagery, meter, figurative language, and diction). You can also write an analysis of a work’s theme, a character in a play or a story, or a work’s historical or cultural context. Another option, which is discussed in the pages that follow, is to write a literary argument.
What Is a Literary Argument?
When you write a literary argument, you do more than just respond to, explicate, or analyze a work of literature. When you develop a literary argument, you take a position about a literary work (or works), support that position with evidence, and refute possible opposing arguments. You might, for example, take the position that a familiar interpretation of a well-known work is limited in some way, that a work’s impact today is different from its impact when it was written, or that two apparently very different works have some significant similarities.
It is important to understand that not every essay about literature is a literary argument. For example, you might use a discussion of Tillie Olsen’s short story “I Stand Here Ironing,” with its sympathetic portrait of a young mother during the Great Depression, to support an argument in favor of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s expansion of social welfare programs. Alternatively, you might use Martín Espada’s poem “Why I Went to College” to support your own decision to continue your education. However, writing a literary argument involves much more than discussing a literary work in order to support a particular position or referring to a character to explain a personal choice you made. A literary argument takes a stand about a work (or works) of literature.
Stating an Argumentative Thesis
When you develop an argumentative thesis about literature, your goal is to state a thesis that has an edge—one that takes a stand on your topic. Like any effective thesis, the thesis of a literary argument should be clearly worded and specific; it should also be more than a statement of fact.
INEFFECTIVE THESIS (TOO GENERAL)
In “A&P,” Sammy faces a difficult decision.
EFFECTIVE THESIS (MORE SPECIFIC)
Sammy’s decision to quit his job reveals more about the conformist society in which “A&P” is set than about Sammy himself.
INEFFECTIVE THESIS (STATES A FACT)
The theme of Hamlet is often seen as an Oedipal conflict.
EFFECTIVE THESIS (TAKES A STAND)
Although many critics have identified an Oedipal conflict in Hamlet, Shakespeare’s play is also a story of a young man who is struggling with familiar problems—love, family, and his future.
Here are three possible thesis statements that you could support in a literary argument:
§ Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s short story “The Yellow Wallpaper,” usually seen as a feminist story, is actually a ghost story.
§ The two characters in August Strindberg’s play The Stronger seem to be rivals for the affection of a man, but they are really engaged in a professional rivalry to see who gives the better performance.
§ Although many readers might see Wilfred Owen’s “Dulce et Decorum Est” as the more powerful poem because of its graphic imagery of war, Carl Sandburg’s understated “Grass” is likely to have a greater impact on modern readers, who have been overexposed to violent images.
(For more on developing a thesis statement, see Chapter 7.)
Choosing Evidence
Like any argument, a literary argument relies on evidence. Some of this evidence can be found in the literary work itself. For example, to make a point about a character’s antisocial behavior, you would cite specific examples of such behavior from the work. To make a point about a poet’s use of biblical allusions, you would present examples of such allusions from the poem.
NOTE
Be careful not to substitute plot summary for evidence. For example, summarizing everything that happens to a character will not convince your readers that the character is motivated by envy. Choose only relevant examples—in this case, specific instances of a character’s jealous behavior, including relevant quotations from the literary work.
Evidence can also come from literary criticism—scholarly articles by experts in the field that analyze and evaluate works of literature. For example, to argue that a particular critical theory is inaccurate, outdated, or oversimplified, you would first quote critics who support that theory and then explain why you disagree with their interpretation. (For more on evaluating potential sources for your essay, see Chapter 8.)
Writing a Literary Argument
The structure of a literary argument is similar to the structure of any other argument: it includes a thesis statement in the introduction, supporting evidence, refutation of opposing arguments, and a strong concluding statement. However, unlike other arguments, literary arguments follow specific conventions for writing about literature:
§ In your essay’s first paragraph, include the author’s full name and the title of each work you are discussing.
§ Use present tense when discussing events in works of literature. For example, if you are discussing “I Stand Here Ironing,” you would say, “The mother worries [not worried] about her ability to provide for her child.” There are two exceptions to this rule. Use past tense when referring to historical events: “The Great Depression made things difficult for mothers like the narrator.” Also use past tense to refer to events that came before the action described in the work: “The mother is particularly vulnerable because her husband left her alone to support her children.”
§ Italicize titles of plays and novels. Put titles of poems and short stories in quotation marks.
§ If you quote more than four lines of prose (or more than three lines of poetry), indent the entire quotation one inch from the left-hand margin. Do not include quotation marks, and add the parenthetical documentation after the end punctuation. Introduce the quotation with a colon, and do not add extra line spaces above or below it.
§ When mentioning writers and literary critics in the body of your essay, use their full names (“Emily Dickinson”) the first time you mention them and their last names only (“Dickinson,” not “Miss Dickinson” or “Emily”) after that.
§ Use MLA documentation style in your essay, and include a works-cited list. (See Chapter 10 for information on MLA documentation.)
§ In your in-text citations (set in parentheses), cite page numbers for stories, act and scene numbers for plays, and line numbers for poems. Use the word line or lines for the first in-text citation of lines from each poem. After the first citation, you may omit the word line or lines.
The following literary argument, “Confessions of a Misunderstood Poem: An Analysis of ’The Road Not Taken,’ ” proposes a new way of interpreting a poem that the student writer characterizes as “familiar but frequently misunderstood.”
CONFESSIONS OF A MISUNDERSTOOD POEM: AN ANALYSIS OF “THE ROAD NOT TAKEN”
MEGAN MCGOVERN
LAT: Text reads as follows:
In his poem “Introduction to Poetry,” Billy Collins suggests that rather than dissecting a poem to find its meaning, students should use their imaginations to experience poetry (corresponding margin note reads, Introduction (identifies titles and authors of works to be discussed)). According to Collins, they should “drop a mouse into a poem / and watch him probe his way out” (lines 5—6). However, Collins overstates his case when he implies that analyzing a poem to find out what it might mean is a brutal or (text continues on the next page).
LAT: First paragraph continues as follows:
deadly process, comparable to tying the poem to a chair and “beating it with a hose” (15). Rather than killing a poem’s spirit, a careful and methodical dissection can often help the reader better appreciate its subtler meanings (corresponding margin note reads, The word lines is omitted from the in-text citation after the first reference to lines of a poem). In fact, with patient coaxing, a poem often has much to “confess.” One such poem is Robert Frost’s familiar but frequently misunderstood “The Road Not Taken.” An examination of Frost’s “The Road Not Taken” reveals a complex and somewhat troubling message about the arbitrariness of our life choices and our need to idealize those choices (corresponding margin note reads, Thesis statement).
Second paragraph: On the surface, Frost’s poem seems to have a fairly simple meaning (corresponding margin note reads, Refutation of opposing argument). The poem’s speaker talks about coming to a fork in the road and choosing the “less-traveled” path. Most readers see the fork in the road as a metaphor: the road represents life, and the fork representsan individual’s choices in life. By following the less-traveled road, the speaker is choosing the less conventional—and supposedly more emotionally rewarding—route. At the end of the poem, the speaker indicates his SATisfaction when he says his choice “made all the difference” (line 20). However, Frost himself, referring to “The Road Not Taken,” advised readers “’to be careful of that one; it’s a tricky poem—very tricky,’” encouraging readers not to accept the most appealing or obvious interpretation (qtd. in Savoie 7—8). Literary critic Bojana Vujin urges readers to look for “poetic booby traps such as irony or deceit” in this poem and to enjoy the pleasures and rewards of discovering instances of “deliberate deceit on the poet’s part” (195). In fact, after the speaker’s tone and word choice are carefully examined, the poem’s message seems darker and more complicated than it did initially.
Third paragraph: The speaker’s tone in the first three stanzas suggests indecision, regret, and, ultimately, lack of power (corresponding margin note reads, Evidence: Analysis and explication of Frost poem). Rather than bravely facing the choice between one common path and one uncommon path, the speaker spends most of the poem considering two seemingly equal roads, “sorry” not to be able to “travel both” (2). Even after choosing “the other” road in line 6, the speaker continues for two more stanzas to weigh his options. The problem is that the two roads are, in fact, indistinguishable. As several critics have observed, “the difference between the two roads, at least when it comes to the amount of treading they (text continues on the next page).
LAT: Third paragraph continues as follows:
have been exposed to, is but an illusion: “’they both that morning equally lay’ and neither is particularly travelled by” (Vujin 197) (corresponding margin note reads, Evidence: Literary criticism). The roads are worn “really about the same” (10). If there is virtually no difference between the two, then why does Frost draw our attention to this fork in the road—this seemingly critical moment of choice? If Frost had wanted to dramatize a meaningful decision, the roads would be different in some significant way.
Fourth paragraph: One critic, Frank Lentricchia, argues that Frost is demonstrating “’that our life-shaping choices are irrational, that we are fundamentally out of control’” (qtd. in Savoie 13) (corresponding margin note reads, Evidence: Literary 4 criticism). Similarly, another critic contends that Frost wants his readers “to feel his characters’ inner conflicts and to feel as conflicted as his characters, who are all too often lost in themselves” (Plunkett). These two critical views help to explain the speaker’s indecision in the first three stanzas. The speaker impulsively chooses “the other” road but cannot accept the arbitrariness of his choice; therefore, he cannot stop considering the first road (corresponding margin note reads, Evidence: Analysis and explication of Frost poem). He exclaims in the third stanza, “Oh, I kept the first for another day!” (13). In the next two lines, when he finally gives up the possibility of following that first road, he predicts, “Yet knowing how way leads on to way, / I doubted if I should ever come back” (14—15). Here, the speaker further demonstrates a lack of control over his own decisions. He describes a future guided not by his own active, meaningful choices but rather by some arbitrary force. In a world where “way leads on to way,” he is a passive traveler, not a decisive individualist.
Fifth paragraph: Given the indecision that characterizes the previous stanzas, the poem’s last two lines are surprisingly decisive: “I took the one less traveled by / And that has made all the difference” (19—20) (corresponding margin note reads, Evidence: Analysis and explication of Frost poem). Is the speaker contradicting himself? How has he suddenly become clear about the rightness of his decision? In fact, the last stanza does not make sense unless the reader perceives the irony in the speaker’s tone. The speaker is imagining himself in the future, “ages and ages hence,” telling the story of his moment at the crossroads (17). He imagines how he will, in hindsight, give his choice meaning and clarity that it did not have at the time. As Vujin argues, the poem’s speaker is already “mythologizing his self and his life” (198). The narrator, rather than anticipating (text continues on the next page).
Fifth paragraph continues as follows:
the satisfaction that will come from having made the right and braver choice, is anticipating rewriting his own life story to make sense of an ultimately arbitrary chain of events (corresponding margin note reads, Evidence: Literary criticism). Vujin explains, “This is not a poem about individuality; this is a poem about self-deceit and the rewriting of one’s own history” (198). Reading the last stanza ironically allows readers to make sense of the poem as a whole.
Sixth paragraph: There are many possible interpretations of “The Road Not Taken,” most of which can be supported with evidence from the poem itself (corresponding margin note reads, Conclusion). However, to understand these interpretations, readers need to take the poem apart, look at how its parts fit together, and reach a thoughtful and logical conclusion. To do so, readers must go against some of Billy Collins’s well-meaning advice and be willing to tie the poem—and themselves—to a chair: to read it carefully, ask questions, and stay with it until it confesses.
Works Cited
· Collins, Billy. “Introduction to Poetry.” Sailing Alone around the Room. Random House, 1998, p. 16.
· Frost, Robert. “The Road Not Taken.” Mountain Interval. Henry Holt, 1920, Bartleby.com, www.bartleby.com/119/1.html.
· Plunkett, Adam. “Robert Frost Was Neither Light Nor Dark.” New Republic, 13 Jun. 2014, newrepublic.com/article/118046/art-robert-frost-tim-kendall-reviewed-adam-plunkett.
· Savoie, John. “A Poet’s Quarrel: Jamesian Pragmatism and Frost’s ’The Road Not Taken.’” New England Quarterly, vol. 77, no. 1, 2004, pp. 5—24. Academic Search Premier, www.ebscohost.com/academic/academic-search-premier.
· Vujin, Bojana. “’I Took the Road Less Traveled By’: Self-Deception in Frost’s and Eliot’s Early Poetry.” Annual Review of the Faculty of Philosophy, vol. 36, no. 1, 2011, pp. 195—203.
The following literary argument, “Not Just a ’Girl,’ ” argues against the commonly held position that a key character in the 1925 Ernest Hemingway short story “Hills Like White Elephants” is a stereotype.
NOT JUST A “GIRL”
LOREN MARTINEZ
Text reads as follows:
First paragraph: In Ernest Hemingway’s famous story “Hills Like White Elephants,” a couple, “the American and the girl with him,” talk and drink while waiting for a train to Madrid (Hemingway 69) (corresponding margin note reads, Introduction). Most readers agree that the subject of their discussion is whether “the girl,” called Jig, should have an abortion. Most of the story is told through dialogue, and although the word abortion is never mentioned, most readers agree that the pregnancy is the source of the tension between them. However, there are other aspects of the story about which readers do not agree. For example, some critics believe that Hemingway’s portrayal of “the girl” is unfair or sexist. More specifically, some see in her the qualities of “the typically submissive Hemingway woman” (Nolan 19). However, a close reading of the story reveals the opposite to be true: “the girl” is not a one-dimensional stereotype but a complex, sympathetically drawn character (corresponding margin note reads, Thesis statement).
Second paragraph: Most critics who see Hemingway’s portrayal of Jig as sexist base their interpretation on Hemingway’s reputation and not on the story itself (corresponding margin note reads, Refutation of opposing arguments). For example, feminist critic Katherine M. Rogers points out that because Hemingway himself “openly expressed fear of and hostility to women” (263), it “seems fair” to see his male characters “as representative of Hemingway himself” (248). However, although “the American” in this story may see Jig as just “a pleasant pastime,” it would be an oversimplification to confuse the character’s opinion of her with the writer’s as Rogers would encourage us to do (251). For example, one could argue (as many critics have done) that because the name “Jig” has sexual connotations, it reveals the author’s sexism (Renner 38). However, as critic Howard Hannum points out, she is referred to by this name only twice in the story, both times by the male character himself, not by the narrator (qtd. in Renner 38). Critic Stanley Renner agrees with Hannum, rejecting the idea that Hemingway’s choice to refer to the character as “the girl” is equally “belittling” (38). Renner argues that this use of the (text continues on the next page).
Second paragraph continues as follows:
word girl is necessary to show how the character changes and matures in this story. In fact, he sees “her achievement of mature self-knowledge and assertion [as] the main line of development in the story” (39). All in all, the evidence suggests that “the girl,” not “the American,” is actually the story’s protagonist. Given this central focus on “the girl” and the complexity of her character, the accuSATions that Hemingway’s sexism has led him to create a stereotype do not seem justified.
Third paragraph: When students who are not familiar with Hemingway’s reputation as a misogynist read “Hills Like White Elephants,” they tend to sympathize more often with “the girl” than with “the American” (Bauer 126) and to see the female character’s thoughtfulness and depth (corresponding margin note reads, Evidence: First point in support of thesis). Although “the American” refers to the abortion as “’really an awfully simple operation’” (Hemingway 72), downplaying its seriousness, “the girl” has a “more mature understanding” of what her decision might mean (Bauer 130). She recognizes that it is not so “simple,” and she is not naïve enough to think that having the baby will save the relationship. In fact, she responds to his own naive comments with sarcasm. He claims that they will be “’all right and happy’” if she goes through with the operation; he says he’s “’known lots of people who have done it.’ ’So have I,’ said the girl. ’And afterward they were all so happy’” (Hemingway 73). Despite her sarcasm and her resistance to his suggestions, the man continues to insist that this problem will be easy to fix. Finally, the girl becomes irritated with him and, as readers can see by the dashes that end his lines midsentence, cuts him off, finishing his lines for him as he tries to tell her again how “perfectly simple” the operation is (Hemingway 76). Readers understand her pain and frustration when she finally says, “’Would you please please please please please please please stop talking?’” (Hemingway 76).
Fourth paragraph: The argument that “the girl” is a fLAT, stereotypical character portrayed in sexist terms is hard to support (corresponding margin note reads, Evidence: Second point in support of thesis). In fact, a stronger argument could be made that it is the man, “the American,” who is the stereotype. As critic Charles J. Nolan Jr. points out, “Hemingway highlights Jig’s maturity and superiority as he excoriates the selfishness and insensitivity of her companion” (19). Moreover, “the girl” is certainly the central character in this story—the one in conflict, the one who must make the final decision, and the one who grows over the course of the story. At times, (text continues on the next page).
Fourth paragraph continues as follows: she seems willing to listen to the man, even going so far as to say, “’Then I’ll do it. Because I don’t care about me’” (Hemingway 74). However, soon after, she responds defiantly to his comment, “’You mustn’t feel that way’” with “’I don’t feel any way’” (Hemingway 75). Thus, as Renner notes, Hemingway’s dialogue reveals “the self-centered motives of his male character” while at the same time dramatizing the female character’s complex inner struggle (38). By the end of the story, the shallow “American” still expects things to be all right between them. But when the man asks, “’Do you feel better?’” Hemingway shows the girl’s quiet power—and her transformation—by giving her the final understated words of the story: “’I feel fine. . . . There’s nothing wrong with me. I feel fine’” (Hemingway 77). Although we do not learn what her decision is, we can see that she is now in control: she has decided to shut down the converSATion, and what the man has to say no longer matters.
Fifth paragraph: In “Hills Like White Elephants,” “the girl” proves herself to be neither “’weak in character’” nor “’weak as character’” as some have described Hemingway’s female characters (Bauer 126) (Corresponding margin note reads, Conclusion). Far from being weak in character, she constantly questions and pushes against the male character’s suggestions. And far from being weak as a character, she acts as the protagonist in this story, winning the reader’s sympathies. A stereotypically drawn female character would not be able to carry off either of these feats. Although Hemingway may demonstrate sexism in his other stories—and demonstrate it in his own life—readers who evaluate this story will discover a complex, conflicted, sympathetic female character (corresponding margin note reads, Concluding statement).
Works Cited
· Bauer, Margaret D. “Forget the Legend and Read the Work: Teaching Two Stories by Ernest Hemingway.” College Literature, vol. 30, no. 3, 2003, pp. 124—37. Academic Search Premier, www.ebscohost.com/academic/academic-search-premier.
· Hemingway, Ernest. “Hills Like White Elephants.” Men without Women. Charles Scribner’s, 1927, pp. 69—77.
· Nolan, Charles J., Jr. “Hemingway’s Women’s Movement.” Hemingway Review, vol. 4, no. 1, 1984, pp. 14—22. Academic Search Premier, www.ebscohost.com/academic/academic-search-premier.
· Renner, Stanley. “Moving to the Girl’s Side of ’Hills Like White Elephants.’” Hemingway Review, vol. 15, no. 1, 1995, pp. 27—41. Academic Search Premier, www.ebscohost.com/academic/academic-search-premier.
· Rogers, Katherine M. The Troublesome Helpmate: A History of Misogyny in Literature. U of Washington P, 1996.
APPENDIX B Documenting sources: APA
American Psychological Association (APA) documentation style is commonly used in the social sciences. In APA style, parenthetical references refer readers to sources in the list of references at the end of the paper.1Parenthetical citations must be provided for all sources that are not common knowledge, whether you are summarizing, paraphrasing, or quoting.
Using Parenthetical References
In APA style, parenthetical references refer readers to sources in the list of references at the end of the paper. A typical parenthetical reference includes the author’s last name (followed by a comma) and the year of publication: (Vang, 2015). Here are some guidelines for specific situations.
§ If the author’s last name appears in the text, follow it with the year of publication, in parentheses: According to Vang (2015), recent studies suggest . . .
§ When quoting from a source, include a page number, if available: (Vang, 2015, p. 33). Once you have cited a source, you can refer to the author a second time without the publication date so long as it is clear you are referring to the same source: Vang also found . . .
§ If no author is identified, use a shortened version of the title: (“Mind,” 2015).
§ If you are citing multiple works by the same author or authors published in the same year, include a lowercase letter with the year: (Peters, 2014a), (Peters, 2014b), and so on.
§ When a work has two authors, cite both names, separated by an ampersand, and the year: (Tabor & Garza, 2006). For three to five authors, in the first reference, cite all authors, along with the year; for subsequent references, cite just the first author, followed by et al. When a work has six or more authors, cite just the first author, followed by et al. and the year: (McCarthy et al., 2010).
§ Omit page numbers or dates if the source does not include them. (Try to find a .pdf version of an online source; it will usually include page numbers.)
§ If you quote a source found in another source, cite the original author and the source in which you found it: Psychologist Gary Wells asserted . . . (as cited in Doyle, 2005, p. 122).
§ Include in-text references to personal communications and interviews by providing the person’s name, the phrase “personal communication,” and the date: (J. Smith, personal communication, February 12, 2015). Do not include these sources in your reference list.
If a direct quotation is forty words or less, include it within quotation marks without separating it from the rest of the text. When quoting a passage of more than forty words, indent the entire block of quoted text one-half inch from the left margin, and do not enclose it in quotation marks. It should be double-spaced, like the rest of the paper. Place parenthetical documentation one space after the final punctuation.
Preparing a Reference List
Start your list of references on a separate page at the end of your paper. Center the title References at the top of the page, and follow these guidelines:
§ Begin each reference flush with the left margin, and indent subsequent lines one-half inch. Double-space the reference list within and between entries.
§ List your references alphabetically by the author’s last name (or by the first major word of the title if no author is identified).
§ If the list includes references for two sources by the same author, alphabetize them by title.
§ Italicize titles of books and periodicals. Do not italicize article titles or enclose them in quotation marks.
§ For titles of books and articles, capitalize the first word of the title and subtitle as well as any proper nouns. Capitalize words in a periodical title as they appear in the original.
When you have completed your reference list, go through your paper and make sure that every reference cited is included in the list in the correct order.
Examples of APA Citations
The following are examples of APA citations.
Periodicals
Article in a journal paginated by volume
· Shah, N. A. (2006). Women’s human rights in the Koran: An interpretive approach. Human Rights Quarterly, 28, 868—902.
Article in a journal paginated by issue
· Lamb, B., & Keller, H. (2007). Understanding cultural models of parenting: The role of intracultural variation and response style. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38(1), 50—57.
Magazine article
· Von Drehle, D. (2015, April 20). Line of fire. Time, 185(14), 24—28.
Newspaper article
· DeParle, J. (2009, April 19). Struggling to rise in suburbs where failing means fitting in. The New York Times, pp. A1, A20—A21.
Books
Books by one author
· Jordan, Jennifer A. (2015). Edible memory: The lure of heirloom tomatoes and other forgotten foods. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Books by two to seven authors
· McFadden, J., & Al-Khalili, J. (2014). Life on the edge: The coming of age of quantum biology. New York, NY: Crown.
Books by eight or more authors
· Barrett, J. M., Smith, V., Wilson, R. T., Haley, V. A., Clarke, P., Palmer, N. B., . . . Fraser, D. (2012). How to cite references in APA style. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Edited book
· Brummett, B. (Ed.). (2008). Uncovering hidden rhetorics: Social issues in disguise. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Essay in an edited book
· Alberts, H. C. (2006). The multiple transformations of Miami. In H. Smith & O. J. Furuseth (Eds.), Latinos in the new south: Transformations of place (pp. 135—151). Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
Translation
· Piketty, T. (2015). The Economics of inequality (A. Goldhammer, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Revised edition
· Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. B. (2008). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Internet Sources
Entire website
· Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. (2015). Convention on biological diversity. Retrieved from https://www.cbd.int/
Web page within a website
· The great divide: How Westerners and Muslims view each other. (2006, July 6). In Pew global attitudes project. Retrieved from http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=253
University program website
· National security archive. (2009). Retrieved from George Washington University website: http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/
Journal article found on the web with a DOI
Because websites change and disappear without warning, many publishers have started adding a Digital Object Identifier (DOI) to their articles. A DOI is a unique number that can be retrieved no matter where the article ends up on the web.
To locate an article with a known DOI, go to the DOI system website at http://dx.doi.org/ and type in the DOI number. When citing an article that has a DOI (usually found on the first page of the article), you do not need to include a URL in your reference or the name of the database in which you may have found the article.
· Geers, A. L., Wellman, J. A., & Lassiter, G. D. (2009). Dispositional optimism and engagement: The moderating influence of goal prioritization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 913—932. doi:10.1037/a0014746
Journal article found on the web without a DOI
· Bendetto, M. M. (2008). Crisis on the immigration bench: An ethical perspective. Brooklyn Law Review, 73, 467—523. Retrieved from http://brooklaw.edu/students/journals/blr.php/
Journal article from an electronic database
The name and URL of the database are not required for citations if a DOI is available. If no DOI is available, provide the home page URL of the journal or of the book or report publisher.
· Staub, E., & Pearlman, L. A. (2009). Reducing intergroup prejudice and conflict: A commentary. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 11, 3—23. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/journals/psp/
Electronic book
· Katz, R. N. (Ed.). (2008). The tower and the cloud: Higher education in an era of cloud computing. Retrieved from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/PUB7202.pdf
Presentation slides
· Hall, M. E. (2009) Who moved my job!? A psychology of job-loss “trauma” [Presentation slides]. Retrieved from http://www.cew.wisc.edu/docs/WMMJ%20PwrPt-Summry2.ppt
Student Essay
The following research paper, “The High Cost of Cheap Counterfeit Goods,” follows APA format as outlined in the preceding pages.
APA PAPER GUIDELINES
§ An APA paper should have a one-inch margin all around and be double-spaced throughout.
§ The first line of every paragraph should be indented, and all pages of the paper, including the first, should be numbered consecutively.
§ Every page should have a page header (an abbreviated title in all uppercase letters) typed one-half inch from the top of the page.
§ An APA paper has four sections: the title page, the abstract, the body of the paper, and the reference list:
1. The title page (page 1) should include a running head (in all uppercase letters) at the top:
§ Running Head: COUNTERFEIT GOODS
2. The title page should also include the title of the paper (upper- and lowercase letters), your name (first name, middle initial, last name), and your school.
3. The abstract (page 2) should be a 150- to 250-word summary of the paper. Type the word Abstract (centered); skip one line; and do not indent. After the abstract, skip one line and type Keywords (italicized and indented), followed by keywords that will help researchers find your essay in a database.
4. The body of the paper should begin on page 3. After the title page, each page of the paper should include the running head (in all uppercase letters), typed flush left, one-half inch from the top of the page:
COUNTERFEIT GOODS
5. The reference list should begin on a new page, after the body of the paper. (See pages A-14—A-15 for a discussion of how to format the reference list.)
§ Citations should follow APA documentation style.
The text reads, (Center Aligned) The High Cost of Cheap Counterfeit Goods, Deniz A. Bilgutay, Humanities 101, Section 1, Professor Fitzgerald, March 4, 2020. (end Center Aligned) The text at the top left corner of the page reads, Running Head: (Uppercase) Counterfeit Goods (end Uppercase) and the page number at the top right corner reads, 1.
The text at the top left corner of the page reads, (Uppercase) Counterfeit Goods (end Uppercase) and the page number at the top right corner reads, 2.
The text reads, (Center Aligned) Abstract (end Center Aligned)
The global trade in counterfeit products costs manufacturers of luxury goods millions of dollars each year. Although this illegal trade threatens the free market, employs underage labor, and may even fund terrorism, many people consider it a victimless crime. Studies show that some consumers even take pride in buying knock-off products. But a closer look at this illicit trade in counterfeit goods shows that consumers in the United States (m dash) and around the world (m dash) do not understand the ethical implications of the choices they make. Consumers should stop supporting this illegal business, and law enforcement officials should prosecute it more vigorously than they currently do. In the final analysis, this illegal practice hurts legitimate businesses and in some cases endangers the health and safety of consumers.
(New Paragraph) (Italics) Keywords: (end Italics) counterfeiting, terrorism, ethics, crime
The text at the top left corner of the page reads, (Uppercase) Counterfeit Goods (end Uppercase) and the page number at the top right corner reads, 3.
The text reads, (Center Aligned) The High Cost of Cheap Counterfeit Goods (end Center Aligned)
For those who do not want to pay for genuine designer products, a fake Louis Vuitton bag or knock-off Rolex watch might seem too good to pass up. (A margin note beside this text reads, Introduction). Such purchases may even be a source of pride. According to one study, two-thirds of British consumers said they would be “proud to tell family and friends” that they bought inexpensive knock-offs (Thomas, 2007). The trade in counterfeit goods, however, is a crime (m dash) and not a victimless crime. A growing body of evidence suggests that the makers and distributers of counterfeit goods have ties to child labor, organized crime, and even terrorism. In addition, the global economic cost of counterfeiting is estimated at 600 billion dollars a year, according to recent data from the International Chamber of Commerce (Melik, 2011). For these reasons, consumers should stop buying these products and funding the illegal activities that this activity supports. (A margin note beside this text reads, Thesis statement).
(New Paragraph) Much of the responsibility for the trade in counterfeit goods can be placed on the manufacturers and the countries that permit the production and export of such goods. For example, China, which dominates the world counterfeit trade, is doing very little to stop this activity. According to a recent article in (Italics) U S A Today (end Italics) by Calum MacLeod (2011) , “a major obstacle is China’s (Italics) shanzhai (end Italics) culture, whereby some Chinese delight in making cheap imitations, sometimes in parody, of expensive, famous brands.” Chinese counterfeiters have gone so far as to create entire fake stores: fake Starbucks stores, fake Abercrombie and Fitch stores, and even fake Apple stores. Although some of these copycats have been prosecuted, there is a high level of tolerance, even admiration, for counterfeiting in China. This attitude toward (Italics) shanzhai (end Italics) is reflected in the country’s lax intellectual property protection laws. As one Chinese intellectual property lawyer observed, “The penalties don’t
The text at the top left corner of the page reads, (Uppercase) Counterfeit Goods (end Uppercase) and the page number at the top right corner reads, 4.
The text reads, outweigh the benefits” (as cited in MacLeod, 2011). Given this situation, the production of counterfeit goods in China is not likely to slow down any time soon.
(New Paragraph) Despite such cultural justifications for counterfeiting, there is still an ethical problem associated with the purchase of knock-offs. As Dana Thomas (2007) has written in (Italics) The New York Times (end Italics), many of these counterfeit products are made by children who are “sold or sent off by their families to work in clandestine factories.” To American consumers, the problem of children laboring in Chinese factories may be remote, but it is serious. If it is reasonable to place blame for this flourishing market on the countries that allow it, it is also reasonable to blame the people who buy most of the counterfeit goods (m dash) namely, consumers in the United States and Europe. According to a report by U.S. Customs and Border Patrol, 62 percent of fake goods seized in the United States in 2011 were produced in China (as cited in Coleman, 2012). (A margin note beside this text reads, Evidence: Point 1) In Europe, the numbers are even higher. According to (Italics) The Wall Street Journal (end Italics), 85 percent of goods seized in the European Union come from China (Nairn, 2011). Consequently, the simple act of buying a counterfeit Coach handbag implicates the consumer in the practice of forced child labor.
(New Paragraph) Immoral labor practices are not the only reason why the counterfeit market needs to be stopped. (A margin note beside this text reads, Evidence: Point 2) Organized crime is behind much of the counterfeit trade, so “every dollar spent on a knockoff Gap polo shirt or a fake Kate Spade handbag may be supporting drug trafficking, (ellipsis) and worse” (“Editorial: The True Cost,” 2007). Consumer dollars may also be supporting narcotics, weapons, and child prostitution (Thomas, 2007).
(New Paragraph) This illicit international system also helps to finance groups even more sinister than crime syndicates. American consumers of counterfeit goods should understand that profits from
The text at the top left corner of the page reads, (Uppercase) Counterfeit Goods (end Uppercase) and the page number at the top right corner reads, 5.
The text reads, counterfeit goods support terrorist and extremist groups, including Hezbollah, paramilitary organizations in Northern Ireland, and F A R C, a revolutionary armed faction in Colombia (Thomas, 2007). According to the International Anti-Counterfeiting Coalition, the sale of knock-off T-shirts may even have funded the 1993 attack on the World Trade Center. (A margin note beside this text reads, Evidence: Point 3) Some observers speculate that terrorists annually receive about 2% of the roughly $500 billion trade in counterfeit goods (“Editorial: The True Cost,” 2007). According to Ronald K. Noble, secretary-general of the international law enforcement agency Interpol, crime involving counterfeit merchandise “is becoming the preferred method of funding for a number of terrorist groups” (as cited in Langan, 2003).
(New Paragraph) Beyond the moral and ethical implications of its links to child labor, crime, and terrorism, counterfeit merchandise also undermines the mainstay of Western business (m dash) respect for intellectual property. (A margin note beside this text reads, Evidence: Point 4) In the context of a vast international market of counterfeit luxury goods, the issue of intellectual property can seem insignificant. But the creation of new products requires time, energy, and money, and “unrestrained copying robs creators of the means to profit from their works” (Sprigman, 2006 ). Copyright law exists to make sure that inventors and producers will be motivated to create original work and be fairly compensated for it. This principle applies to the designers of luxury goods and fashion items as well. Christopher Sprigman (2006) disagrees, however, noting that although intellectual property law does little to protect fashion designs, this is as it should be. (A margin note beside this text reads, Opposing argument) “Trend-driven consumption,” says Sprigman, is good for the fashion industry because the industry’s ability to create trends “is based on designers’ relative freedom to copy.” But even this argument (m dash) which addresses the influences of legitimate fashion designers and manufacturers (m dash) cannot be used to (A margin note beside this text reads, Refutation)
The text at the top left corner of the page reads, (Uppercase) Counterfeit Goods (end Uppercase) and the page number at the top right corner reads, 6.
The text reads, justify allowing counterfeiters to copy Prada handbags or Hugo Boss suits and pass them off as genuine branded articles. Such illicit activity creates no trends (em dash) other than perhaps increasing the market for counterfeit products, which siphons off more profits from original designers.
(New Paragraph) The knock-off market is not limited to fashion and luxury goods. For example, fake products such as shoddy brake pads have directly injured many consumers. In addition, each year millions of people in the United States and abroad buy counterfeit drugs that do not work and in many cases are dangerous. (A margin note beside this text reads, Evidence: Point 5). Some sources estimate that the majority of drugs used to treat life-threatening diseases in Africa are counterfeit. Not coincidentally, many of the same people who are making and distributing counterfeit luxury goods are also manufacturing these drugs (“Editorial: The True Cost,” 2007).
(New Paragraph) It is time for people to realize the harm that is done by counterfeit merchandise and stop buying it. One way to combat this problem is to educate consumers about the effects of their purchases. As James Melik (2011) of the BBC explains, “People try to save money without realizing that the purchase of counterfeit goods can actually harm themselves, the economy and ultimately, their own pockets.” Melik urges consumers to “think twice” before buying “products which promote and fund crime.” Another way to confront the problem is for law enforcement to address this issue aggressively. Not only should local authorities do more to stop this illegal trade, but national governments should also impose sanctions on countries that refuse to honor international treaties concerning intellectual property. Only by taking this issue seriously can we ensure that this “victimless” crime does not continue to spread and claim more victims. (A margin note beside this paragraph reads, Conclusion)
The text reads, (Center aligned) References. (end Center Aligned) Coleman, S. (2012, January 20). China still accounts for majority of US counterfeit goods. (Italics) Canadian Manufacturers and Exporters (end Italics). Retrieved from http://www.cme-mec.ca/?lid=JCKNC-E742G-1W6JA&comaction=show&cid=DVU6K-CVBRZ-C6TZQ
(New Paragraph) Editorial: The true cost: Illegal knockoffs of name-brand products do widespread harm [Editorial]. (2007, December 2). (Italics) The Columbus (end Italics) [OH] Dispatch , page. 4G.
(New Paragraph) Langan, M. (2003, July 24). Counterfeit goods make real terrorism. (Italics) Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (end Italics), page. A17.
(New Paragraph) MacLeod, C. (2011, August 2). China takes knock-offs to a new level, copying entire stores. (Italics) USA Today (end Italics). Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/technology/2011-07-31-China-counterfeiting-fake-Western-goods-stores_n.htm
(New Paragraph) Melik, J. (2011, December 18). Fake goods save money but at what cost? (Italics) BBC News (end Italics). Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-16087793
(New Paragraph) Nairn, G. (2011, October 18). Countering the counterfeiters. (Italics) The Wall Street Journal (end Italics). Retrieved from http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204226204576600462442044764.html
(New Paragraph) Sprigman, C. (2006, August 22). The fashion industry’s piracy paradox [Online forum comment]. Retrieved from http://www.publicknowledge.org/node/597
(New Paragraph) Thomas, D. (2007, August 30). Terror’s purse strings. (Italics) The New York Times (end Italics), page. A23.