The little red writing book - Brandon Royal 2007

Punctuation highlights
Appendixes

In spoken English, we can convey our meaning through voice and body language: waving hands, rolling eyes, raising eyebrows, stress, rhythm, intonations, pauses, and even repeated sentences. In written language, we do not have such an arsenal of props; this is the unenviable job of punctuation. Mastery of punctuation, along with spelling, requires further review, and is not the focus of this book. But two key areas — commas and semicolons — are addressed because they represent areas where some of the most common punctuation errors occur.

COMMAS

It is said that ninety percent of writers can use the comma correctly seventy-five percent of the time, but only one percent of writers can use the comma correctly ninety-nine percent of the time. The comma is often used, but often used incorrectly. The well-known advice that a comma be used whenever there is a pause is terribly misleading. Arguably the best way to master the comma is to think of every comma as fitting into one of six categories: listing comma, joining comma, bracketing comma, contrasting comma, omission comma, or confusion comma.

Listing Comma

A listing comma separates items in a series. If more than two items are listed in a series, they should be separated by commas. The final comma in the series, the one that precedes the word and, is required (see Appendix IV — American English vs. British English for further discussion about the use of a comma before a final “and” or "or").

Correct: A tostada is usually topped with a variety of ingredients, such as shredded meat or chicken, refried beans, lettuce, tomatoes, and cheese.

Do not place commas before the first element of a series or after the last element.

Incorrect: The classic investment portfolio consists, of stocks, bonds, and short-term deposits.

(Remove the comma placed after the word “consists.”)

Correct: The classic investment portfolio consists of stocks, bonds, and short-term deposits.

Incorrect: Conversation, champagne, and door prizes, were the highlights of our office party.

(Remove the comma placed after the word “prizes.”)

Correct: Conversation, champagne, and door prizes were the highlights of our office party.

Bracketing Comma

There are four main uses of the bracketing comma: (1) to set off nonessential information in the middle of a sentence; (2) to set off an opening phrase or clause; (3) to set off a closing phrase or clause; and (4) to set off speech in direct dialogue.

First, bracketing commas set off nonessential (nonrestrictive) information placed in the middle of a sentence. Such information (in the form of phrases and clauses) is not essential to the main idea of the sentence; in fact, we can test this. If after omitting words the sentence still makes sense, we know these words are nonessential and optional.

Correct: The Tale of Genji, written in the eleventh century, is considered by literary historians to be the world’s first novel.

The main idea is that The Tale of Genji is considered to be the world’s first novel. The intervening phrase, “written in the eleventh century,” merely introduces additional but nonessential information.

Correct: The old brick house that is painted yellow is now a historical landmark.

Correct: The old brick house at O’Claire Point, which we visited last year, is now a historical landmark.

Regarding the first of the two examples above, “that is painted yellow” defines which old brick house the author is discussing. In the second example, the main point is that the old brick house at O’Claire Point is now a historical landmark, and the intervening clause “which we visited last year” merely adds additional but nonessential information.

Note: Commas (bracketing) are not used before the second component part of a correlative conjunction (e.g., either … or, neither … nor, not only … but also, and both … and. In the following sentence, for example, no comma should be used before “but”: “For North Americans, natural gas is not only a cheaper petroleum-based fuel, but also a cleaner one.”

The second major use of the bracketing comma is to set off opening phrases and clauses from the main sentence (independent clause).

Correct: Like those of Sir Isaac Newton, the scientific contributions of Albert Einstein have proven monumental.

(A comma in the above sentence separates the prepositional phrase “like those of Sir Issac Newton” from the main sentence.)

Correct: Having collected rare coins for more than fifteen years, Bill was heartbroken when his collection was stolen in a house burglary.

(A comma separates the participial phrase “having collected rare coins for more than fifteen years” from the main sentence. This participle (or participial) phrase serves as an adjective in describing Bill.)

If the opening phrase is very short, the use of the comma is considered optional. In the following example, the decision whether to use a comma after “at present” rests with the writer.

Correct: At present we are a crew of eight.

The third major use, though not as common as the first two uses, involves bracketing a nonessential closing phrase or clause from the main sentence (independent clause).

Correct: I hope we can talk more about this idea during the conference, if time permits.

(A comma is used to set off the phrase “if time permits” because this phrase functions as a piece of nonessential information. If we deleted these words, the sentence would still make sense.)

Correct: They woke up at 6 a.m., when they heard the rooster crowing.

Correct: They woke up when they heard the rooster crowing.

(The first of the above two sentences contains a nonessential clause which is bracketed. The fact that “they woke up at 6 a.m.” is the critical information. The reason for their waking up is auxiliary information. However, in the second sentence, “when they heard the rooster crowing” is critical information about why they woke up. This restrictive information is not set off by commas.)

Note: A point of possible confusion occurs when a sentence ends with a phrase or clause beginning with “which.” For example: “I like that new brand of coffee, which is now on sale.” It is common practice to place a comma before “which” because it is assumed that such closing phrases or clauses are parenthetical. That is, they do not contain defining or essential information and should therefore be preceded by a comma. It is also common practice not to place a comma before phrases or clauses beginning with the word “that” because it is assumed that such phrases or clauses do contain defining or essential information. However, the question remains, Is a comma really necessary, especially in this short sentence? One editing trick is to substitute “that” for “which” in order to edit out the comma (along with the word “which”). Nonetheless, for those who prefer to use “which” without the comma (at least in short sentences as in the example above), one rationale for doing so is the fact that these two words — “that” and “which” — are virtually interchangeable in meaning.

The fourth major use of the bracketing comma is to set off quoted speech from the speaker.

Correct: The waitress said, “See you next time.”

“Thank you,” we replied.

The same treatment is afforded to unspoken dialogue or “thought speech.” Most commonly it is enclosed within quotation marks, but alternatively, it may be italicized to contrast it with actual speech.

Correct: “And what is the use of a book,” thought Alice, “without pictures or conversation?”

Correct: And what is the use of a book without pictures or conversation?

Note that it is not necessary to use both a speech tag (e.g., “thought Alice”) and italics, since use of both techniques is redundant. Placing “thought speech” in quotation marks is common practice in nonfiction writing. Placing “thought speech” in italics is common practice in fiction writing.

Similar treatment is applied when setting off a quotation.

Correct: Was it Robert Frost who wrote, “Good fences make good neighbors”?

One important distinction arises between the direct quotations and material that is merely surrounded by quotation marks. In the latter situation, we punctuate, with reference to commas, in exactly the same manner as we would “regular” sentences. This is also the same method used for punctuating sentences when dealing with sayings, maxims, adages, aphorisms, proverbs, or mottoes.

Correct: The statement “Some cats are mammals” necessarily implies that “Some mammals are cats.”

(It’s the writer’s choice whether to capitalize the word “some.”)

Correct: Our manager’s favorite saying, “Rein in the nickels,” is also his most annoying.

In the example above, commas are used because the saying “Rein in the nickels” is effectively nonessential information, the omission of which would still not destroy the sentence. Case in point: “Our manager’s favorite saying is also his most annoying.”

Note: Bracketing commas are, of course, used with dates, addresses, and salutations (opening lines of letters or memos) and complimentary closes. These uses are quite common and easily understood; they are not covered here as they are unlikely to cause confusion.

Joining Comma

Use commas to separate independent clauses connected by coordinating conjunctions such as and, but, yet, or, nor, for, and so. (Independent clauses are clauses that can stand alone as complete sentences.)

Correct: Susan wants to get her story published, and she wants to have it made into a movie.

Correct: Maurice ate habanero peppers with almost every meal, yet he hardly ever got indigestion.

The following is a potentially tricky situation in which it is difficult to determine whether the comma goes before or after the and.

Correct: I’ll put together a business plan, and by next week, I’ll send it to a few potential investors.

In the previous example, there must be a joining comma before and, and ideally a bracketing comma after week. We have, after all, two complete sentences: “I’ll put together a business plan” and “By next week, I’ll send it to a few potential investors.” Note that the comma before and cannot be a bracketing comma because we cannot remove the words “and by next week” without creating a run-on sentence (i.e., two sentences that are joined without proper punctuation). Note that we could put a comma after and (given that “by next week” is an optional phrase), but we typically do not as a matter of practice. Thus, in the next example below, the use of a third comma, although not visually pleasing, is not incorrect:

Correct: I’ll put together a business plan, and, by next week, I’ll send it to a few potential investors.

Correct: Some experts do not believe alcoholism should be called a disease and, moreover, believe that any type of dependency can be cured by identifying and treating its underlying causes.

In the previous example, we do not have two complete sentences, so we cannot have a joining comma (i.e., “believe that any type of dependency can be cured by identifying and treating its underlying causes” is not a complete sentence). But since the connecting word “moreover” is merely optional, it should be enclosed with commas. In other words, we could write: “Some experts do not believe alcoholism should be called a disease and believe that any type of dependency can be cured by identifying and treating its underlying causes.” Knowing that we can omit a word or words and still have a sentence that makes sense is the telltale sign that we have an optional phrase.

A joining comma is optional in the case of two very short, complete sentences (independent clauses) joined by a coordinating conjunction.

Correct: The rain has stopped and the sun is shining.

Correct: The clouds are gone but it’s windy.

The coordinating conjunctions “and” and “but” each join two complete sentences.

Contrasting Comma

Correct: The new music director vowed to take an active, not passive, fundraising role.

Correct: She didn’t cry from sorrow and pain, but from relief and joy.

In both of the above sentences, there is sufficiently strong contrast to warrant the use of a contrasting comma.

Correct: A poorer but happier man could not be found.

In the above example, however, no commas are used to bracket the words “but happier.” The important point in deciding whether to use contrasting commas rests primarily with the emphasis needed within a given sentence. Strong emphasis will require commas to separate contrasting word groups; light to moderate emphasis will not require the aid of commas. The distinction regarding using or not using a pair of contrasting commas has little to nothing to do with whether the words are essential. It could be argued that all information is essential when using contrasting commas.

Note: When “because” joins two parts of a sentence, does a comma go before the word “because”? This is a mystery question open to debate. Consider these two examples:

Correct: Don’t forget to bring an umbrella because it’s going to rain out.

Correct: To tell those grief-stricken people that we know how they feel is disingenuous, because we don’t know how they feel.

Some writers like to place a comma before almost every use of “because.” They would prefer to write, “Don’t forget to bring an umbrella, because it’s going to rain out.” A likely better, more consistent, practice is to use a comma before “because” only if that comma qualifies as a contrasting comma, or perhaps a bracketing comma.

Case in point: There is not a strong sense of contrast between the need to remember to bring an umbrella given the likelihood of rain. There is, however, a stronger sense of contrast in thinking that we know how other grief-stricken people feel and the fact that we likely don’t know how they feel. Most often, we will not require a comma before the word “because.” First, use of the subordinating conjunction “because” creates a logical connection between ideas in a sentence, making it unlikely that the information it connects is nonessential (therefore no bracketing comma is needed). Second, the word “because” embodies a reasonable degree of contrast, obviating the need for a contrasting comma.

Note: In practice, if a sentence is short, a contrasting comma is not used before the second component part of the correlative conjunction “not only … but (also).” Thus, in the following sentence, no comma would be used before “but”: “Our apartment is not only cheap but centrally located.” For longer sentences, it is common practice to use a comma before the second component part of the correlative conjunction. As such, a comma would likely be used before “but” in the following sentence: “For North Americans, natural gas is not only a cheaper and cleaner petroleum-based fuel, but also a readily available one.”

Use a comma to separate word groups that flow in natural opposition to each other.

Correct: Out of sight, out of mind.

Correct: The more you practice, the better you’ll get.

A contrasting comma is also used to separate two identical words in succession.

Correct: This is a great, great ice-cream flavor.

Correct: Many, many articles have been written about weight loss and weight gain.

Omission Comma

Use commas to indicate missing words. In those situations involving adjectives, the missing word is typically and.

Correct: I can’t believe you sat through that long, dull, uninspired lecture without once checking your watch.

We can test this sentence by replacing each comma with and:

Correct: I can’t believe you sat through that long and dull and uninspired lecture without once checking your watch.

Correct: It was a juicy, ripe mango.

Incorrect: It was a juicy ripe mango.

Incorrect: It was a juicy, ripe, mango.

A comma is required to separate juicy from ripe. There are two ways to confirm this. First, substitute and for the comma and see if things still make sense. (Example: “It was a juicy and ripe mango.”) Second, reverse the word order and see if the sentence makes sense. (Example: “It was a ripe, juicy mango.”) Either or both of these tests confirm that a comma is needed.

A comma should not be placed after ripe because and cannot be substituted for it. For instance, the phrase “ripe and mango” makes no sense. The rule is that a comma should not be placed between the modifier and the noun it modifies.

A comma can be used to take the place of omitted words.

Correct: The first playoff game was exciting; the second, dull.

In the above sentence, the comma takes the place of the “playoff game was.” The sentence effectively reads: “The first playoff game was exciting; the second playoff game was dull.”

Confusion Comma

A comma may be used to prevent confusion, particularly in those situations where the absence of a comma would otherwise cause the reader to misread.

Incorrect: To Karen Jane was as heroic a real-life character as could be found in any novel.

Correct: To Karen, Jane was as heroic a real-life character as could be found in any novel.

The eye cannot resist reading both names together as if they represent a first and last name.

Incorrect: Run for your life is in danger.

Correct: Run, for your life is in danger.

One could argue that a contrasting comma is needed in the above example. However, the actual problem is that the reader’s eye has trouble knowing how to group the words properly.

Incorrect: The speaker said: “On Day 1 I will discuss the reasons for the global increase in diabetes and on Day 2 I will talk about how to curtail this trend.”

Correct: The speaker said: “On Day 1, I will discuss the reasons for the global increase in diabetes, and on Day 2, I will talk about how to curtail this trend.”

Obviously, a comma is needed in the above example to avoid confusion between the close proximity of the numbers 1 and 2 and the personal pronoun “I.”

EXERCISE

Correct the comma usage in each sentence by observing its five uses: listing, bracketing, joining, contrasting, or omission.

1. The Oscar the Emmy and the Tony are three related awards which confuse many people.

2. Emerging from the ruins of the World War II Japan embarked on an economic recovery that can be only viewed in historical terms as astonishing.

3. Every major band requires, a lead singer, a lead guitarist, a bass guitarist, and a drummer.

4. A dedicated empathetic individual can achieve lifetime recognition as a United Nations worker.

5. More than a few people were shocked to discover that a torn, previously worn, pair of Madonna’s underwear sold for more money at auction than did a large, splendid, sketch by Vignon.

6. The more he talked with her the more he liked her.

7. The crowded housing tenement, a cluster of rundown, look-alike apartments was the site of the Prime Minister’s birthplace.

8. South Africa is famous for her gold and diamonds, Thailand, for her silk and emeralds, and Brazil for her coffee and sugarcane.

9· She reached for the clock, and finding it, hastily silenced the alarm.

10. Josie originally wanted to be a nurse but after finishing university she decided to become a flight attendant instead.

SEMICOLONS

Use a semicolon instead of a coordinating conjunction (that is, and, but, yet, or, nor, for, so) to link two closely related sentences. The key thing to remember is that a semicolon separates complete sentences. It is not used if one or more of those sentences is a fragment.

Correct: Today’s students are more creative and technologically savvy, but they are also weaker in the basics of reading, writing, and arithmetic.

Correct: Today’s students are more creative and technologically savvy; they are also weaker in the basics of reading, writing, and arithmetic.

Use a semicolon between independent clauses connected by words such as however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless, and consequently. These special words are called conjunctive adverbs.

Incorrect: The formulas for many scientific discoveries appear rudimentary, however, when one examines a derivation behind these formulas they do not seem so rudimentary after all.

Correct: The formulas for many scientific discoveries appear rudimentary; however, when one examines a derivation behind these formulas they do not seem so rudimentary after all.

RUN-ON SENTENCES

To see commas and semicolons in action, let’s review a very common error — the run-on sentence. A run-on refers to two sentences that are inappropriately joined together, usually by a comma. There are effectively four ways to correct a run-on sentence, as seen in each of the four correct options below. First, join the two sentences with a semicolon. Second, join the two sentences with a coordinating conjunction (e.g., and, but, yet, or, nor, for, so). Third, separate the two sentences with a period. Fourth, turn one of the two sentences into a subordinate clause.

Incorrect: Technology has made our lives easier, it has also made our lives more complicated.

Correct: Technology has made our lives easier; it has also made our lives more complicated.

(This solution involves changing the comma to a semicolon.)

Correct: Technology has made our lives easier, and it has also made our lives more complicated.

(This solution involves joining two sentences with a coordinating conjunction.)

Correct: Technology has made our lives easier. It has also made our lives more complicated.

(This solution involves making two separate sentences.)

Correct: Even though technology has made our lives easier, it has also made our lives more complicated.

(This solution involves turning one sentence into a subordinate clause. Here the focus is on the idea that technology has made our lives more complicated (independent clause). The subordinate idea is that it has made our lives easier (subordinate clause). It would also be equally correct to say: “Even though technology has made our lives more complicated, it has also made our lives easier.” Now the central idea and subordinate idea are reversed.)

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

1. The Oscar, the Emmy, and the Tony are three related awards which confuse many people.

The comma after Emmy is required in American English but omitted in British English.

2. Emerging from the ruins of the World War II, Japan embarked on an economic recovery that can only be viewed in historical terms as astonishing.

A bracketing comma is required after “World War II.”

3. Every major band requires a lead singer, a lead guitarist, a bass guitarist, and a drummer.

There should be no comma after the verb “requires.”

4. A dedicated, empathetic individual can achieve lifetime recognition as a United Nations worker.

An omission comma separates “dedicated and empathetic.” There are two ways to test for this. First, substitute the word “and” to read “dedicated and empathetic.” Second, reverse the order of the two words to read “empathetic, dedicated individual.” Since either substituting the word “and” or reversing the word order still makes sense in context, a comma should be used.

5. More than a few people were shocked to discover that a torn, previously worn pair of Madonna’s underwear sold for more money at the auction than did a large, splendid sketch by Vignon.

There are no commas after “previously worn” or “sketch.” A comma is not placed between a modifier and the word it modifies. Here the words being modified are a “pair of Madonna’s underwear” and “sketch.”

6. The more he talked with her, the more he liked her.

A contrasting comma after “her” is required.

7. That crowded housing tenement, a cluster of run-down, look-alike apartments, was the site of the Prime Minister’s birthplace.

Insert a comma after “apartments”; the phrase “a cluster of run-down, look-alike apartments” is nonessential (and therefore optional) and should be enclosed with commas.

8. South Africa is famous for her gold and diamonds, Thailand, for her silk and emeralds, and Brazil, for her coffee and sugarcane.

A comma is needed after Thailand and Brazil. Such a comma (an omission comma) takes the place of the words “is famous.” So, the sentence effectively reads: “South Africa is famous for her gold and diamonds, Thailand is famous for her silk and emeralds, and Brazil is famous for her coffee and sugarcane.”

There are at least two additional ways to correct this sentence:

i) By omitting the second comma in the original:

“South Africa is famous for her gold and diamonds, Thailand for her silk and emeralds, and Brazil for her coffee and sugarcane.”

The treatment is consistent with the rules of ellipsis. We can acceptably omit words (in this case the words “is famous”) when they are readily understood in context.

ii) By using semicolons with commas:

“South Africa is famous for her gold and diamonds; Thailand, for her silk and emeralds; and Brazil, for her coffee and sugarcane.”

Semicolons can be used in conjunction with commas, especially in cases of heavily punctuated sentences. The final “and” appearing before “Brazil” is optional.

9. She reached for the clock and, finding it, hastily silenced the alarm.

A bracketing comma is needed before and after the words “finding it”; this is a nonessential phrase. Removing these words still results in a complete sentence. Case in point: “She reached for the clock and hastily silenced the alarm.” If, however, we were to remove the words “and finding it,” the sentence would become nonsensical: “She reached for the clock hastily silenced the alarm.” Therefore this confirms that a set of bracketing commas cannot be used in the original sentence.

10. Josie originally wanted to be a nurse, but after finishing university, she decided to become a flight attendant instead.

A joining comma is required before “but,” while a bracketing comma is required after “university.” We effectively have two sentences: “Josie originally wanted to be a nurse” and “After finishing university, she decided to become a flight attendant.” In the solution above, the two commas do not both function as bracketing commas; if this were so we could cut out the phrase “but after finishing university” and the sentence would still make sense, but it doesn’t: “Josie originally wanted to be a nurse she decided to become a flight attendant instead.”

England and America are two countries

divided by a common language.

—George Bernard Shaw