PSAT/NMSQT Prep 2019 - Princeton Review 2019

Rhetoric
Reading
Reading

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Determine the author’s purpose and point of view in a given passage

2. Determine why the author uses a certain word or phrase in a given passage

3. Evaluate both the overall and part-to-whole text structure of a given test-like passage

4. Distinguish between claims and counterclaims and evaluate the use of evidence to support the author’s reasoning

SMARTPOINTS

Prepare

RHETORIC QUESTIONS: ANALYZING PURPOSE

Overall, rhetoric refers to the language the author uses, especially in order to persuade or influence the reader.

Some Analyzing Purpose questions ask about the purpose of the passage as a whole. Every author has a reason for writing. To identify that reason—or purpose—ask these two questions:

· Why did the author write this passage?

· What does the author want the reader to think about this topic?

Other Analyzing Purpose questions will ask you to identify the purpose of part of a passage, usually one or more paragraphs. To answer this type of question, read around the cited portion, review your Passage Map, and ask these two questions:

· What is the function of this section?

· How does this section help achieve the author’s purpose?

RHETORIC QUESTIONS: ANALYZING POINT OF VIEW

The author’s point of view is closely tied to the purpose of the passage. Though some authors are neutral, most authors have an opinion, or point of view. Questions that ask you to analyze point of view require you to establish the author’s perspective and how that perspective affects the content and the style of the passage. That is, you need to figure out not only what the author says, but also how the author says it. Mapping the passage will help you determine the author’s point of view.

As you map a passage, ask:

· Is the author’s tone positive, negative, or neutral?

· Does the author want things to change or stay the same?

· Is the author addressing supporters or opponents?

RHETORIC QUESTIONS: ANALYZING WORD CHOICE

Rhetoric questions about word choice ask about how a particular word or phrase affects your understanding of the author’s purpose and point of view.

Don’t confuse Analyzing Word Choice questions with Vocab-in-Context questions, which ask about the meaning of a word or phrase. Analyzing Word Choice questions ask about the function of a word or phrase within the passage; that is, why did the author use this word or phrase?

To answer Analyzing Word Choice questions, ask what the function of the cited word or phrase is. Common functions of words or phrases include the following:

· Setting a mood

· Conveying an emotion

· Building to a conclusion

· Calling to action

· Stating an opinion

Remember

Correct answers to Analyzing Word Choice questions will always be in line with the author’s overall purpose.

RHETORIC QUESTIONS: ANALYZING TEXT STRUCTURE

Some Rhetoric questions will require you to analyze the structure of the passage. The PSAT Reading Test will ask about two kinds of text structures:

1. Overall text structure refers to how the information within a passage is organized. Some common text structures are cause-and-effect, compare-and-contrast, sequence, problem-and-solution, and description.

2. Part-whole relationships describe how a particular part of the passage (e.g., a sentence, quotation, or paragraph) relates to the overall text. When asked about a part-whole relationship, make sure you determine what function the part plays in the passage.

Expert Tip

Include the structure of the passage in your Passage Map. Identifying the structure of the text will make it easier to understand and analyze its content.

RHETORIC QUESTIONS: ANALYZING ARGUMENTS

Other Rhetoric questions will ask you to analyze arguments within the text for both their form and content.

Questions that ask you to analyze a text’s arguments vary in scope. There are three types of Analyzing Arguments questions. You may be asked to:

1. Analyze claims and counterclaims. A claim is not an opinion but rather the main point or thesis of a passage the author promotes. A counterclaim is the opposite of a claim—it will negate or disagree with the thesis or central idea of the passage.

2. Assess reasoning. The reasoning of a passage is composed of the statements offering support for claims and counterclaims. On the PSAT Reading test, you may be asked whether an author’s or a character’s reasoning is sound—that is, whether the argument is valid and the reasoning for the argument is true.

3. Analyze evidence. Evidence can be facts, reasons, statistics, and other information the author employs to support a claim or counterclaim. You will have to assess how and why this evidence is used.

Let’s look at the following example of a test-like passage and question set. After the mapped passage, the left column contains questions similar to those you’ll see on the Reading Test on Test Day. The column on the right features the strategic thinking test experts employ when approaching the passage and questions presented. Pay attention to how test experts vary the approach to answer different question types.

1. Questions 1-3 are based on the following passage.

2. The following passage about evolutionary science was excerpted from the writings of a well-known biologist.

3.

Practice

You have seen the ways in which the PSAT tests you on Rhetoric questions in Reading passages and the way a PSAT expert approaches these types of questions.

You will use the Kaplan Method for Reading Comprehension to complete this section. Part of the test-like passage has been mapped already. Your first step is to complete the Passage Map. Then you will continue to use the Kaplan Method for Reading Comprehension and the strategies discussed in this chapter to answer the questions. Strategic thinking questions have been included to guide you—some of the answers have been filled in, but you will have to fill in the answers to others.

Use your answers to the strategic thinking questions to select the correct answer, just as you will on Test Day.

1. Questions 4-6 are based on the following passage.

2. This passage, about the formative years of the American media, was adapted from an essay on the relationship between newspapers and popular culture by Walter Fox.

3.

Perform

Now, try a test-like Reading passage on your own. Give yourself 6 minutes to read the passage and answer the questions.

1. Questions 7-9 are based on the following passage.

2. The following passage was written in 1992 by France Bequette, a writer who specializes in environmental issues.

The ozone layer, the fragile layer of gas sur- rounding our planet between 7 and 30 miles above the Earth’s surface, is being rapidly depleted. Sea- Seasonally occurring holes in the ozone layer have appeared over the Poles and, recently, over densely populated temperate regions of the northern hemi- sphere. The threat is serious because the ozone layer protects the Earth from the sun’s ultraviolet radia- tion, which is harmful to all living organisms. Even though the layer is many miles thick, the atmosphere in it is tenuous and the total amount of ozone, compared with other atmospheric gases, is small. Ozone is highly reactive to chlorine, hydro- gen, and nitrogen. Of these, chlorine is the most dangerous since it is very stable and long-lived. When chlorine compounds reach the stratosphere, they bond with and destroy ozone molecules, with subsequent repercussions for life on Earth. In 1958, researchers began noticing seasonal variations in the ozone layer above the South Pole. Between June and October the ozone con- tent steadily fell, followed by a sudden increase in November. These fluctuations appeared to result from the natural effects of wind and temperature. However, while the low October levels remained constant until 1979, the total ozone content over the Pole was steadily diminishing. In 1985, public awareness was finally roused by reports of a “hole” in the layer. The culprits responsible for the hole were indenti- fied as compounds known as chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs. CFCs are compounds of chlorine and fluorine. Nonflammable, nontoxic, and noncorro- sive, they have been widely used in industry since the 1950s, mostly as refrigerants and propellants and components in making plastic foam and insulation. In 1989 CFCs represented a sizable market val- ued at over $1.5 billion and a labor force of 1.6 mil- lion. But with CFCs implicated in ozone depletion, the question arose as to whether we were willing to risk increases in cases of skin cancer and eye ail- ments, even a lowering of the human immune de- fense system—all effects of further loss of the ozone layer. And not only humans would suffer; so would plant life. Phytoplankton, the first link in the ocean food chain and vital to the survival of most marine species, would not be able to survive near the ocean surface, which is where these organisms grow. In 1990, 70 countries agreed to stop produc- ing CFCs by the year 2000. In late 1991, however, scientists noticed a depletion of the ozone layer over the Arctic. In 1992, it was announced that the layer was depleting faster than expected and that it was also declining over the northern hemisphere. Scientists believe that natural events are making the problem worse. The Pinatubo volcano in the Philippines, which erupted in June 1991, released 12 million tons of damaging volcanic gases into the atmosphere. Even if the whole world agreed today to stop all production and use of CFCs, this would not solve the problem. A single chlorine molecule can destroy 10,000-100,000 molecules of ozone. Furthermore, CFCs have a lifespan of 75-400 years and they take ten years to reach the ozone layer. In other words, what we are experiencing today results from CFCs emitted ten years ago. Researchers are working hard to find substitute products. Some are too dangerous because they are highly flammable; others may prove to be toxic and to contribute to the greenhouse effect (and to the process of global warming). Nevertheless, even if there is no denying that the atmosphere is in a state of disturbance, nobody can say that the situation will not improve, either in the short or the long term, especially if we ourselves lend a hand.

7. The author’s reference to the long life of chlorine molecules in lines 14-15 is meant to show that

1. there is more than adequate time to develop a long-term strategy against ozone loss.

2. the long-term effects of ozone loss on human health may never be known.

3. it is doubtful that normal levels of ozone can ever be reestablished.

4. the positive effects of actions taken against ozone loss will be gradual.

8.

8. In paragraph 6 (lines 49-59), the author cites the evidence of changes in the ozone layer over the Northern Hemisphere to indicate that

1. the dangers of ozone depletion appear to be intensifying.

2. ozone depletion is posing an immediate threat to many marine species.

3. scientists are unsure about the ultimate effects of ozone loss on plants.

4. CFCs are not the primary cause of ozone depletion in such areas.

9. In the final paragraph, the author tries to emphasize that

1. researchers are unlikely to find effective substitutes for CFCs.

2. human action can alleviate the decline of the ozone layer.

3. people must learn to live with the damaging effects of industrial pollutants.

4. people have more control over ozone depletion than over the greenhouse effect.

On your own

The following questions provide an opportunity to practice the concepts and strategic thinking covered in this chapter. While many of the questions pertain to Rhetoric questions, some touch on other concepts tested on the Reading Test to ensure that your practice is test-like, with a variety of question types per passage.

1.

1. Questions 1-10 are based on the following passage.

2. The following passage is adapted from a psychologist’s discussion of the development of the human brain.

Although the brain comprises only 2 percent of the human body’s average weight, the billions of neurons and trillions of synaptic connections that are the human brain constitute a truly impressive organ. In terms of what it can do, the human brain is in some ways unable to match the brain function- ing of “lower” animals; in other ways, its capabilities are quite unrivaled. Salmon, caribou, and migrat- ing birds, for example, have navigational abilities unparalleled in our own species, and even dogs and cats have senses of hearing and smell known only, in human form, to comic book superheroes. Yet, no other animal on the planet can communicate, solve problems, or think abstractly about itself and the future as we do. While these relative strengths and weaknesses can be attributed to the unique and sophisticated structure of the human brain, neuro- scientists also have traced these characteristics to the human brain’s remarkable flexibility, or what researchers call plasticity. Encased in a hard, protective skull that by the age of two is already 80 percent of its eventual adult size, the human brain has little room for size expan- sion even while the rest of the body, especially dur- ing adolescence, is experiencing significant changes in physical appearance. The first few years of a child’s life are a time of rapid brain growth. At birth, each neuron in the cerebral cortex has an estimated 2,500 synapses; by age three, this number blossoms to 15,000 synapses per neuron. The average adult, however, has about half that number of synapses. Nevertheless, the human brain’s plasticity allows for marked capacity changes because of usage, practice, and experience throughout one’s life. This idea that the human brain continues to develop and, some might say, improve over the course of one’s life is a relatively new concept. Neuroscientists, even after brain size was no longer considered a direct determiner of brain capacity, once believed that the basic structure and abilities of the adult brain are developed early in life and not subject to change. Although psychologist William James suggested as early as 1890 that “organic matter, especially nervous tissue, seems endowed with a very extraor- dinary degree of plasticity,” this idea went largely ignored for many years. Then, several provocative experiments dramatically complicated conventional thinking about the human brain. In the 1920s, researcher Karl Lashley provided evidence of changes in the neural pathways of rhesus monkeys. By the 1960s, researchers began to explore cases in which older adults who had suffered massive strokes were able to regain functioning, demonstrating that the brain was much more malleable than previously believed. Modern researchers have also found evidence that the brain is able to rewire itself following damage. One of these experiments, for example, examined the various effects an enriched environment, in this case an “amusement park” for rats, could have on brain development. Researchers kept one group of rats in an empty cage, devoid of any stimulus, while another group lived in a cage filled with ladders, platforms, boxes, and other toys. Over the course of the experiment, researchers used magnetic resonance imaging technology to observe the brain development of the two groups. Those rats that lived in the enriched environment full of stimuli developed heavier, thicker brains with more neurons and synaptic connections—the cellular a ctivity by which the brain functions—than those that were deprived. Such results were then found to be even more noticeable in humans. Whereas it was once believed that the brain’s physical structure was permanent, this experiment and other contemporary findings show that the brain continues to create new neural pathways and alter existing ones in order to adapt to new experiences, learn new information, and create new memories. As we gain new experiences, some connections are strengthened while others are eliminated in a process called “synaptic pruning.” Frequently used neurons develop stronger connections; those rarely (or never) used eventually die. By developing new connections and pruning away weak ones, the brain is able to adapt to the changing environment, thus confirming an essential point: one’s life experiences and environment not only mold the brain’s particular architecture but can also continue to expand its capacity to function.

1. What is the author’s central idea in this passage?

1. The brain’s capability to grow and develop is greatly limited after childhood.

2. The science of studying the brain has come a long way in the past century.

3. The human brain is remarkably flexible and is able to develop new synapses and pathways well into adulthood.

4. Despite many decades of studying brain development and dynamics, scientists are no closer to unlocking the brain’s secrets than they were a hundred years ago.

2. According to the passage, which choice best describes the number of synapses per neuron of a three-year-old compared to that of an average adult?

1. Three-year-olds have twice as many synapses per neuron as the average adult.

2. Three-year-olds have half as many synapses per neuron as the average adult.

3. Three-year-olds and adults tend to have about the same number of synapses per neuron.

4. Scientists are unable to tell how many synapses per neuron people have.

3. Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question?

1. Lines 21-26 (“Encased in . . . physical appearance”)

2. Lines 27-31 (“At birth . . . number of synapses”)

3. Lines 51-55 (“By the 1960s . . . previously believed”)

4. Lines 80-84 (“As we gain . . . eventually die”)

4. As used in line 17, “sophisticated” most nearly means

1. messy.

2. intricate.

3. unknowable.

4. challenging.

5. As used in line 33, “marked” most nearly means

1. pronounced.

2. modest.

3. infinitesimal.

4. eye-catching.

6. Based on lines 58-73 (“One of these experiments . . . noticeable in humans”), the reader can conclude that

1. experiments with rats tell us little about the human brain.

2. scientists were mistaken in their hypothesis that an enriched environment would affect brain growth.

3. surprisingly, environments devoid of enrichment actually boost brain growth.

4. an enriched environment abundant in stimuli positively impacts the development of brains in rats as well as humans.

7. Which choice best describes the scientific consensus on brain flexibility and development beyond childhood?

1. No one suspected the brain’s ability to develop and grow throughout a person’s life until the past fifty years.

2. Scientists have been convinced of the brain’s flexibility for a very long time, but the experiments to prove this flexibility were only recently developed.

3. The brain’s flexibility was hypothesized more than a century ago, but the concept did not gain proof until later in the twentieth century.

4. Few scientists are convinced that the human brain retains any elasticity beyond childhood.

8. Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question?

1. Lines 15-20 (“While these . . . plasticity”)

2. Lines 37-48 (“Neuroscientists . . . human brain”)

3. Lines 61-67 (“Researchers . . . two groups”)

4. Lines 84-90 (“By developing . . . function”)

9. As used in line 59, “enriched” most nearly means

1. wealthy.

2. enhanced.

3. streamlined.

4. clean.

10.As used in line 89, “architecture” most nearly means

1. silhouette.

2. façade.

3. edifice.

4. configuration.