PSAT/NMSQT Prep 2020 - Princeton Review 2020

The method for PSAT reading questions
PSAT reading

Learning Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

· Read PSAT Reading passages strategically.

· Apply the Method for PSAT Reading Questions efficiently and effectively to PSAT Reading questions.

300/600 SmartPoints^®

How to Do PSAT Reading

The PSAT Reading section is made up of four passages and one set of paired passages, each approximately 500—750 words long and accompanied by 9 or 10 questions for a total of 47 questions in the section. To tackle all of this effectively in 60 minutes, the most successful test takers

· read the passages strategically to zero in on the text that leads to points, and

· approach the questions with a method that minimizes rereading and leads directly to correct answers.

The key to maximizing correct answers is learning in advance the kinds of questions that the test asks. PSAT Reading questions focus more on the author’s purpose (why she wrote this passage) and the passage’s structure (how the author makes and supports her points) than on the details or facts of the subject matter (what this passage is about).

Knowing that the PSAT rewards your attention to how and why the author wrote the passage or chose to include certain words or examples puts you in the driver’s seat. You can read more effectively and answer the questions more quickly and confidently.

In this chapter, we’ll give you an overview of how to tackle Reading passages and questions. The other chapters in this unit will help you become a stronger reader and introduce the six PSAT Reading question types, as well as provide tips for improving your approach to paired passages, primary sources passages, and literature passages (see online appendices).

Try the passage and questions that follow on your own. Then, compare your approach to our recommendations for how to approach PSAT Reading and reflect on how you can become a more efficient test taker.

1. Questions 1-10 refer to the following passage.

2. The following passage, adapted from an article in an encyclopedia of U.S. culture, addresses some of the influences of the automobile on life in the United States during the twentieth century.

Few developments have so greatly affected American life as the automobile. Indeed, it would be hard to overestimate its impact. Since mass production of the automobile became feasible in the early twentieth century, the car has had a significant effect on nearly every facet of American life, including how we work, where we live, and what we believe. Interestingly, it was the process of building cars rather than the cars themselves that first brought a sea change to the American workplace. In 1914, a Ford plant in Highland Park, Michigan, used the first electric conveyor belt, greatly increasing the efficiency of automobile manufacturing. Assembly lines for the production of automobiles were quickly adopted and became highly mechanized, providing a new model for industrial business. In contrast to European manufacturers, which employed a higher percentage of skilled laborers to produce fewer and costlier cars, American companies focused on turning out a large quantity of affordable cars utilizing less-skilled laborers. Assembly-line production was a mixed blessing, as it enabled higher productivity and more affordable cars but resulted in less-satisfied workers with less-interesting jobs. The value of efficiency was emphasized over personal pride and investment in the work. As cars became more popular, their effect on population distribution was likewise profound. Unlike railroads, which helped concentrate the population in cities, the automobile contributed to urban sprawl and, eventually, to the rise of suburbs. People no longer needed to live near railroad lines or within walking distance of their jobs, and so were drawn to outlying areas with less congestion and lower property taxes. Business districts became less centralized for similar reasons. Sadly, this movement toward suburbs exacerbated social stratification. Since cars were initially affordable only to wealthier people, the upper and middle classes moved out of cities. Many businesses followed, attracted by the educated, well-trained workforce. As good jobs also moved out of cities, the people who remained were further disadvantaged and even less able to leave. Though few anticipated it in the heady early days of suburban growth, by the century’s end, cars had helped to further entrench social divisions in America by making possible great physical distances between rich and poor. Automobile ownership has also transformed our individual lives and values. Historian James Flink has observed that automobiles particularly altered the work patterns and recreational opportunities of farmers and other rural inhabitants by reducing the isolation that had been characteristic of life in the country. Of course, there were also profound changes in the recreational activities of suburban and urban dwellers. For example, the 1950s saw a huge increase in drive-in movie theaters, fast-food establishments, supermarkets, and shopping centers—most facets of how we ate, shopped, and played changed to accommodate the car. Family life was also affected: cars changed dating behavior by allowing teenagers more independence from parental supervision and control, and they provided women with more freedom to leave the home. This personal mobility and autonomy afforded by the car has become an integral part of American culture.

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

1. defend the use of assembly lines in automobile manufacturing.

2. draw a contrast between U.S. population distribution before and after the advent of the automobile.

3. explain certain changes in recreational activities in cities, suburbs, and the country.

4. describe the wide-ranging impact of the automobile on American society.

2. The author refers to European and American manufacturing practices in lines 22—29 primarily to

1. demonstrate the quality difference between European and American cars.

2. argue for a return to a less mechanized but less efficient factory system.

3. highlight the positive and negative effects of the automobile on the American workplace.

4. suggest that greater efficiency and more skilled laborers can improve the American workplace.

3. As used in line 39, “profound” most nearly means

1. absolute.

2. unintelligible.

3. far-reaching.

4. thoughtful.

4. In Lines 39—43(“Unlike . . . suburbs”), what distinction does the author draw between the two types of transportation?

1. Railroads are a more efficient mode of transportation than automobiles.

2. Automobiles allow greater flexibility, while railroads operate on a fixed schedule.

3. Railroads promote clustered populations, while automobiles promote dispersed populations.

4. Automobiles replaced railroads as the preferred American mode of transportation.

5. It can be inferred that the author believes social stratification in the United States to be

1. a positive development caused by less centralized business districts.

2. an unfortunate result of ready but expensive transportation.

3. an outgrowth of the rise of supermarkets and shopping centers.

4. a collective choice resulting from personal mobility and autonomy.

6. Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question?

1. Lines 48—50(“Business . . . reasons”)

2. Lines 50—52(“Sadly . . . stratification”)

3. Lines 78—84(“For example . . . car“)

4. Lines 90—92(“This personal . . . culture”)

7. The author regards the conclusions of historian James Flink as

1. insufficiently supported and unconvincing.

2. tangential to more important issues.

3. unimportant though persuasive.

4. accurate but incomplete.

8. Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question?

1. Lines 67—69(“Automobile . . . values”)

2. Lines 69—78(“Historian . . . dwellers”)

3. Lines 78—84(“For example . . . car”)

4. Lines 84—89(“Family . . . home”)

9. As used in line 82, “facets” most nearly means

1. aspects.

2. faces.

3. surfaces.

4. viewpoints.

10.The author mentions dating behavior in lines 85—86 in order to

1. show why teenagers had more independence from parental supervision.

2. tie drive-in movie theaters to strained relationships between parents and their teenage children.

3. illustrate one way in which the automobile changed American family life.

4. challenge James Flink’s thesis that the effects of the automobile on recreational opportunities were limited to rural populations.

STRATEGIC READING

The PSAT Reading Test is an open-book test; the passage is right there for you to reference. Moreover, the PSAT actively tests your skill in looking up details; there are Command of Evidence questions that actually ask you to cite the line numbers for the evidence you used to answer a question. Because of the way the test is constructed, it is in your best interest to read fairly quickly, noting the outline of the passage as you go, marking up the page with margin notes as you read, getting a solid understanding of the main idea, but not taking the time to memorize details.

Be sure to read the pre-passage blurb, the short introduction that comes before the passage. Identify any information that helps you to understand the topic of the passage or to anticipate what the author will discuss. For the previous passage, the blurb states the topic (the automobile) and announces that the passage will discuss some of its influences on American life. That’s an invitation to keep your eye out for multiple effects of the automobile as you read.

You’ll learn all the skills you need to read strategically in the next chapter, but for now, here’s an example of an expert’s passage map. Don’t worry if yours doesn’t look exactly like this (or even anything like this, yet). Follow the expert’s thought process in the discussion that follows the passage to see what he was thinking and asking as he read the passage.

Automobile Passage Map

1. The following passage, adapted from an article in an encyclopedia of U.S. culture, addresses some of the influences of the automobile on life in the United States during the twentieth century.

Few developments have so greatly affected American life as the

influence of

cars in U.S.

automobile. Indeed, it would be hard to overestimate its impact. Since mass production of the automobile became feasible in the early twentieth century, the car has had a significant effect on nearly every facet of American life, including how we work, where we live, and what we believe. Interestingly, it was the process

manufacturing

process was key

of building cars rather than the cars themselves that first brought a sea change to the American workplace. In 1914, a Ford plant in Highland Park, Michigan, used the first electric conveyor belt, greatly increasing the

assembly lines

efficiency of automobile manufacturing. Assembly lines for the production of automobiles were quickly adopted and became highly mechanized, providing a new model for industrial business. In contrast to European manufacturers,

Euro./skilled

vs.

U.S./unskilled

which employed a higher percentage of skilled laborers to produce fewer and costlier cars, American companies focused on turning out a large quantity of affordable cars utilizing less-skilled laborers. Assembly-line production was

author: ↑

production

but unhappy

labor

a mixed blessing, as it enabled higher productivity and more affordable cars but resulted in less-satisfied workers with less-interesting jobs. The value of efficiency was emphasized over personal pride and investment in the work. As cars became more popular, their effect on population distribution was likewise profound. Unlike railroads, which helped concentrate the population in cities, the automobile

cars led to

suburbs (no

need for

trains)

contributed to urban sprawl and, eventually, to the rise of suburbs. People no longer needed to live near railroad lines or within walking distance of their jobs, and so were drawn to outlying areas with less congestion and lower property taxes. Business districts became less centralized for similar reasons. Sadly, this movement toward suburbs exacerbated social stratification. Since cars were initially affordable only to wealthier people, the upper and middle classes moved out of cities. Many businesses followed, attracted by the educated, well-trained

author: bad

effect—

divided rich

and poor

more

workforce. As good jobs also moved out of cities, the people who remained were further disadvantaged and even less able to leave. Though few anticipated it in the heady early days of suburban growth, by the century’s end, cars had helped to further entrench social divisions in America by making possible great physical distances between rich and poor.

personal lives

changed

Automobile ownership has also transformed our individual lives and values. Historian James Flink has observed that automobiles particularly altered the work patterns and recreational opportunities of farmers and other rural inhabitants by reducing the isolation that had been characteristic of life in the country. Of course, there were also profound changes in the recreational activities

examples

of suburban and urban dwellers. For example, the 1950s saw a huge increase in drive-in movie theaters, fast-food establishments, supermarkets, and shopping centers—most facets of how we ate, shopped, and played changed

family life changes

to accommodate the car. Family life was also affected: cars changed dating behavior by allowing teenagers more independence from parental supervision and control, and they provided women with more freedom to leave the home. This personal mobility and autonomy afforded by the car has become an integral part of American culture.

ANALYSIS

Pre-passage blurb: The source is an encyclopedia, so the passage will be neutral and factual. The topic is automobiles and American life.

¶1: The author emphasizes the depth and breadth of the automobile’s influences. The last sentence tells you to expect later paragraphs on American work patterns, demographics, and beliefs.

¶2: How Americans work: the author explains how the popularity of assembly lines in the U.S. led to increased productivity and lower prices for cars but led to a less satisfied, less skilled workforce.

¶3: Where Americans live: the author explains that cars allowed wealthier people to move out of the cities. The author has a strong negative opinion of this trend, arguing that it deepened the wealth gap.

¶4: What Americans believe: the author outlines changes cars brought to Americans’ personal lives: rural people less isolated, more recreation for everyone, and even changes to family life and dating.

Big Picture

Main Idea: The growth of the automobile profoundly changed how Americans work, where they live, and how they spend their personal and family time.

Author’s Purpose: To outline the impact of the car’s popularity on three aspects of American life and culture.

PSAT READING Strategy

A good rule of thumb for summarizing a passage’s main idea is to boil down the author’s takeaway to the reader to a single sentence. If the author had only a few seconds to make his point, what would he like the reader to remember?

Notice that the PSAT expert reads actively, consistently summing up and paraphrasing what the author has said, asking what must come next, and never getting too caught up in details. The expert reader is not thrown off by encountering a new or unfamiliar term. He uses context to understand what it must mean, and remembers that she can always consult the passage if she needs to remember a name or a definition. Finally, before turning to the questions, the expert takes a few seconds to summarize the “Big Picture,” the Main Idea and Author's Purpose. This will help her answer questions about the passage’s main idea and the author’s purpose or point of view.

THE METHOD FOR PSAT READING QUESTIONS

The best-prepared PSAT test takers know that time is one of the PSAT Reading section’s biggest challenges. They also know that trying to speed up and cut corners can lead to sloppy mistakes, or worse, to reading a paragraph over and over because it just isn’t sinking in. So, after setting themselves up for success with helpful passage notes and a clear big picture summary, PSAT experts use a simple four-step method to tackle each question quickly and confidently.

For example, take a look at this question from the set above:

1. In Lines 39—43(“Unlike . . . suburbs”), what distinction does the author draw between the two types of transportation?

1. Railroads are a more efficient mode of transportation than automobiles.

2. Automobiles allow greater flexibility, while railroads operate on a fixed schedule.

3. Railroads promote clustered populations, while automobiles promote dispersed populations.

4. Automobiles replaced railroads as the preferred American mode of transportation.

Because different question types require different strategies, start by unpacking the information in the question stem and identifying the question type. You’ll learn to name and characterize the six PSAT Reading question types in chapter 12. This is a Detail question, which means that you should be able to find the correct answer in the passage almost verbatim.

Next, based on the type of question, research the passage or consult your passage map to get the information you need. This question provides specific line numbers to go to. Here’s the sentence you need: “Unlike railroads, which helped concentrate the population in cities, the automobile contributed to urban sprawl and, eventually, to the rise of suburbs.”

Now, with the relevant part of the passage in mind, predict what the correct answer will say. In this case, you’re looking for an answer choice that says that railroads tend to keep people in cities or that cars promote urban sprawl or both.

Finally, use your prediction to evaluate the choices and find the one correct answer. Only choice (C) is a match for the prediction based on the research you did: railroads promote “clustered populations,” that is, cities, while cars promote “dispersed populations,” that is, suburbs.

Notice that experts don’t merely read or look at the answers; they evaluate them, knowing that only one of them answers the question correctly and that the other three are demonstrably incorrect in some way. Because PSAT experts arm themselves with strong predictions in step 3, they can often zero in on the correct response without wasting time by rereading or hunting around in the passage to check each answer. You’ll go over the strategies and tactics that experts use for steps 2-4 in chapter 13.

The steps are shown in the table below:

Take a look at our expert’s application of the Method for PSAT Reading Questions to the questions from the passage on automobiles. Look for questions on which your own approach could have been faster and more confident.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

That’s the expert’s approach to PSAT Reading in action. Take a moment to go over the steps one more time. Imagine applying them to the next question set you’ll try. As you use the Method for PSAT Reading Questions repeatedly, it will become second nature. You won’t have to say “step 1, step 2, . . . ” in your head; you’ll just be performing them, and you’ll be improving your score in the PSAT Reading section as you do.

As you consider the purpose of strategic reading and the steps of the Method for PSAT Reading Questions, think back to what you saw the PSAT expert accomplish in each step as she tackled the Automobile passage and its questions.

PSAT READing passage Strategy

· Extract everything you can from the pre-passage blurb

· Read each paragraph actively

· Summarize the passage’s big picture

· PSAT experts never skip the pre-passage blurb. They quickly process any information that it provides for the context of the passage or that helps them anticipate what the author will cover.

· Great test takers read actively, asking what the author’s purpose is in writing each paragraph. They also anticipate where the passage will go. Experts “map” the passage by jotting down summaries for each paragraph. They might also circle or underline keywords or phrases that indicate the author’s opinion, details he wishes to highlight or emphasize, and the comparisons and contrasts he makes in the text. You will focus on these active reading and mapping skills in chapter 11.

· Experts pause for a moment after actively reading the passage to summarize the big picture by noting the passage’s main idea and the author’s primary purpose in writing it.

· Step 1. Great test takers determine the kind of question being asked, which indicates the kind of thinking and research the question requires. They also look for clues in the question stem to tell them where in the passage to find the correct answer. In chapter 12, you’ll learn the characteristics of six types of questions found in the PSAT Reading section, and you’ll learn to spot the most common research clues.

· Step 2. PSAT experts never answer a question on a whim. Instead they turn to the passage text or to their summaries of it. Here’s where a good passage map becomes invaluable. If you’re unsure where in the passage a detail or opinion was mentioned, many PSAT Reading questions could lead you to reread all or most of the passage. That’s a huge waste of time. With practice, you’ll learn to use the research clues from the question stem to zero in on the relevant lines of text or paragraph summary.

· Step 3. Before reading the answer choices, top scorers predict (or at least characterize) what the correct answer will say. This allows them to evaluate each choice against the prediction. It’s not always possible to predict the correct answer word for word, but you should be able to use your research to establish the criteria for the correct answer.

· Step 4. In a PSAT Reading question, there is one correct answer. The other choices are demonstrably incorrect. Test takers who start reading the answer choices before completing steps 2 (Research) and 3 (Predict) often find themselves rereading portions of the passage after each answer choice, or worse, comparing the answer choices to each other instead of testing them against a strong prediction. If you find yourself struggling with two or more answer choices, stop. Rephrase your prediction to establish what the correct answer must say and evaluate the choices against that prediction.

By reading strategically and using the Method for PSAT Reading Questions every time you practice, you’ll internalize the steps. By test day, you’ll be attacking this section efficiently and accurately without even thinking about it.

In the next section, you’ll see another PSAT Reading passage accompanied by 10 questions. Map the passage and apply the Method for PSAT Reading Questions presented in this lesson to answer the questions as quickly and confidently as possible.

How Much Have You Learned?

Directions

Take 15 minutes to apply the PSAT Reading passage strategy and question method to the following passage and question set. Assess your work by comparing it to the expert responses at the end of the chapter.

1.

1. Questions 1-10 refer to the following passage.

2. The following passage is adapted from a 2016 article about single-celled organisms that was published in a popular science magazine.

The vast majority of living things are single-celled organisms. Despite their great numbers, our understanding of these life forms on even a basic biochemical and phylogenetic level is only a few decades old and continues to evolve. For most of the twentieth century, it was believed that all life forms could be broadly classified into two main groups, called domains: eukaryotes, or organisms possessing a cell nucleus; and prokaryotes, or organisms lacking such a nucleus. The terms “prokaryotes” and “bacteria” were used more or less interchangeably. Only in the 1970s was it discovered that there are in fact two very distinct groups of prokaryotes, not any more related to each other than they are related to the eukaryotes: bacteria and archaea. This discovery was made by Carl Woese, who in 1990 proposed a three-domain system based on phylogenetics, or the degree of genetic relatedness among species. Woese proposed separating bacteria and archaea based on analysis of their ribosomal RNA, genetic material that plays an active role in the formation of proteins. The phylogenetic branches of Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya form the basis of the three-domain system of classification still in use today. When they were first discovered, all archaea were believed to be extremophiles—that is, organisms living in extreme conditions such as very hot, cold, or chemically caustic environments. We now know that these organisms exist in large numbers in virtually all habitats, including in the human digestive tract. We also know that most prokaryotes that cause disease are bacteria, not archaea. And we have an ever-improving understanding of the biochemical pathways employed by these two groups of organisms. Despite our growing understanding of prokaryotes, the evolutionary relationships among the Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya are far from clear. A comparison of the genomes of species in these three domains done in 1997 showed similarities between the Bacteria and Archaea in the genes coding for enzymes, and similarities between the Archaea and Eukarya in the genes coding for protein synthesis machinery. Moreover, although the Archaea are prokaryotes, the proteins that give their chromosomes structure are similar to those within the nucleus of the Eukarya. In other words, the Archaea seem to be related, in different ways, to both the Bacteria and the Eukarya. Because the Eukarya are the most recent domain to evolve, it has been hypothesized that the first eukaryotic cell originally arose from a prokaryotic cell within the Archaea. If this hypothesis is correct, there still remains a tantalizing mystery: the evolution of the eukaryotic nucleus. The nucleus is a complex structure within a eukaryotic cell that is encased in a membrane and that contains the cell’s genetic material. There are a number of competing models for how this structure might have evolved. Leaving out the most controversial of these, which involves viruses, there are three that have found significant support within the scientific community. The first is the “syntrophic model,” which states that ancient archaea slipped inside bacterial cells and eventually became those cells’ nuclei. The second model is based on the observation that certain prokaryotes have recently been discovered to possess a primitive nucleus. This model suggests that archaea might, by degrees, have evolved complex chromosomes and eventually also the nuclear membrane encasing those chromosomes. Finally, the most recent model proposes that ancient archaea could have developed a second external cell membrane, with the internal cell membrane eventually becoming the nucleus. Whether any of these models turns out to be correct, the discovery of the Archaea as a separate prokaryotic domain has given rise to a fascinating field of research into evolutionary relationships.

3. The main purpose of the passage is to

1. describe the discovery of the Archaea domain and its implications.

2. suggest that the three-domain system of classification should be more widely adopted.

3. refute the idea that bacteria are the most ancient life forms.

4. argue for the inclusion of eukaryotes in the Archaea domain.

4. Based on information in the passage, it can be reasonably inferred that ribosomal RNA

1. has improved our biochemical understanding of single-celled organisms.

2. determines whether or not a single-celled organism has a nucleus.

3. serves as a marker of how closely different species are related to one another.

4. exists only in archaea that prefer extreme environments.

5. Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question?

1. Lines 2—7(“Despite . . . evolve”)

2. Lines 8—14(“For most . . . a nucleus”)

3. Lines 21—25(“This discovery . . . species”)

4. Lines 34—39(“When . . . environments”)

6. In line 30, “branches” most nearly means

1. boughs.

2. offices.

3. chapters.

4. groupings.

7. The author presents the idea that the Eukarya evolved from the Archaea as

1. conclusively proven.

2. plausible but not definitively established.

3. unlikely at best.

4. convincingly disproved.

8. Which choice provides the best evidence for the answer to the previous question?

1. Lines 30—33(“The phylogenetic . . . today”)

2. Lines 45—48(“And we . . . organisms”)

3. Lines 49—53(“Despite . . . clear”)

4. Lines 92—96(“This model . . . chromosomes”)

9. The third paragraph serves mainly to

1. note a common misconception about the Archaea.

2. present new information about extremophiles.

3. draw a contrast between the Bacteria and the Archaea.

4. provide examples of the improved understanding of prokaryotes.

10.According to the passage, the genetic similarities between the Archaea and the Eukarya are significant primarily because

1. they imply extremophilic origins for the Archaea.

2. they suggest an evolutionary origin for the Eukarya.

3. they undermine the belief that the Bacteria are of more ancient origin than the Archaea.

4. they make it impossible to consider more than three phylogenetic domains.

11.In line 79, “models” most nearly means

1. ideals.

2. hypotheses.

3. examples.

4. figurines.

12.According to the passage, the syntrophic model of the evolution of the eukaryotic nucleus posits that

1. the first eukaryotes arose from a fusion of archaea and bacteria.

2. viruses played a role in producing the first eukaryotic cells.

3. the first eukaryotes developed directly from archaea.

4. a second cell membrane was involved in its development.

13.

2.

Reflect

Directions: Take a few minutes to recall what you’ve learned and what you’ve been practicing in this chapter. Consider the following questions, jot down your best answer for each one, and then compare your reflections to the expert responses on the following page. Use your level of confidence to determine what to do next.

Describe active, or strategic, reading on PSAT passages.

What do PSAT experts mean by summarizing the big picture of a passage?

How can writing brief “margin notes” help you answer PSAT Reading questions more effectively?

What does a PSAT expert look for in the question stem of a PSAT Reading question?

Why do expert test takers predict or characterize the correct answer to each PSAT Reading question before assessing the answer choices?

What will you do differently on future passages and their questions?

EXPERT RESPONSES

Describe active, or strategic, reading on PSAT passages.

Because the PSAT asks many questions about why an author has written the passage or about how the author makes a point, expert test takers read for the author’s purpose and main idea. Noting keywords that indicate a shift or contrast in points of view or that indicate opinions and emphases help keep PSAT experts on point as they anticipate where the passage will go.

What do PSAT experts mean by summarizing the big picture of a passage?

To read for the big picture means being able to accurately summarize the main idea of a passage and to note the author’s purpose for writing it. The big picture summary helps you answer Global questions and questions that ask about the author’s opinion or point of view.

How can writing brief “margin notes” help you answer PSAT Reading questions more effectively?

Jotting down margin notes provides a reference “map” to the subject or purpose of each paragraph in the passage. It helps you locate specific subjects or opinions expressed in the passage when they are called out in the questions.

What does a PSAT expert look for in the question stem of a PSAT Reading question?

Each question stem indicates the type of question and contains clues as to whether the answer will come from researching the passage text or from your big picture summary. Many question stems have specific clues (e.g., line numbers or references to details from the passage) that tell you precisely where to research.

Why do expert test takers predict or characterize the correct answer to each PSAT Reading question before assessing the answer choices?

Predicting or characterizing the correct answer allows you to evaluate each answer choice one time and to avoid rereading for every answer choice. Wrong answers often distort what the passage said or misuse details from the passage, so it’s best to research the passage once to know what the correct answer must say before diving into the choices.

What will you do differently on future passages and their questions?

There is no one-size-fits-all answer to this question. Each student has his or her own initial strengths and opportunities in the Reading section. What’s important here is that you’re honestly self-reflective. Take what you need from the expert’s examples and strive to apply it to your own performance. Many test takers convince themselves that they’ll never get faster or more confident in PSAT Reading, but the truth is, many test takers who now routinely ace the Reading section were much slower and more hesitant before they learned to approach this section systematically and strategically.

NEXT STEPS

If you answered most questions correctly in the “How Much Have You Learned?” section, and if your responses to the Reflect questions were similar to those of the PSAT expert, then consider the Method for PSAT Reading Questions an area of strength and move on to the next chapter. Come back to this topic periodically to prevent yourself from getting rusty.

If you don’t yet feel confident, review the material in “The Method for PSAT Reading Questions,” then try the questions you missed again. As always, be sure to review the explanations closely.

ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS

Bacteria Passage Map

1. The following passage is adapted from a 2016 article about single-celled organisms that was published in a popular science magazine.

1-cell

organisms:

lots of

them, still

learning

The vast majority of living things are single-celled organisms. Despite their great numbers, our understanding of these life forms on even a basic biochemical and phylogenetic level is only a few decades old and continues to evolve. For most of the twentieth century,

used to be

2 divisions:

euk. and

prok.

it was believed that all life forms could be broadly classified into two main groups, called domains: eukaryotes, or organisms possessing a cell nucleus; and prokaryotes, or organisms lacking such a nucleus. The terms “prokaryotes” and “bacteria” were used more or less interchangeably. Only in the 1970s was

now 3—euk.

and 2 kind

of prok.:

bact. & arch

it discovered that there are in fact two very distinct groups of prokaryotes, not any more related to each other than they are related to the eukaryotes: bacteria and archaea. This discovery was made by Carl Woese, who in 1990 proposed a three-domain system

Woese

discovered

based on phylogenetics, or the degree of genetic relatedness among species. Woese proposed separating bacteria and archaea based on analysis of their ribosomal RNA, genetic material that plays an active role in the formation of proteins. The phylogenetic branches of Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya form the basis of the three-domain system of classification still in use today.

recent

discoveries

When they were first discovered, all archaea were believed to be extremophiles—that is, organisms living in extreme conditions such as very hot, cold, or chemically caustic environments. We now know that these organisms exist in large numbers in virtually all habitats, including in the human digestive tract. We also know that most prokaryotes that cause disease are bacteria, not archaea. And we have an ever-improving understanding of the biochemical pathways employed by these two groups of organisms.

what we

don’t know:

evol. relations

Despite our growing understanding of prokaryotes, the evolutionary relationships among the Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya are far from clear. A comparison of the genomes of species in these three domains done

Arch. has

similarities

w/both Euk.

and Bact.

in 1997 showed similarities between the Bacteria and Archaea in the genes coding for enzymes, and similarities between the Archaea and Eukarya in the genes coding for protein synthesis machinery. Moreover, although the Archaea are prokaryotes, the proteins that give their chromosomes structure are similar to those within the nucleus of the Eukarya. In other words, the Archaea seem to be related, in different ways, to both the Bacteria and the Eukarya. Because the Eukarya are the most recent domain to evolve, it

theory to

explain

has been hypothesized that the first eukaryotic cell originally arose from a prokaryotic cell within the Archaea.

more we

don’t know:

how euk.

nucleus

evolved

If this hypothesis is correct, there still remains a tantalizing mystery: the evolution of the eukaryotic nucleus. The nucleus is a complex structure within a eukaryotic cell that is encased in a membrane and that contains the cell’s genetic material. There are a number of competing models for how this structure might have evolved. Leaving

3 theories:

out the most controversial of these, which involves viruses, there are three that have found significant support within the scientific community. The first is the “syntrophic model,” which states that ancient archaea slipped inside bacterial cells and eventually became those cells’ nuclei. The second model is based on the observation that certain prokaryotes have recently been discovered to possess a primitive nucleus. This model suggests that archaea might, by degrees, have evolved complex chromosomes and eventually also the nuclear membrane encasing those chromosomes. Finally, the most recent model proposes that ancient archaea could have developed a second external cell membrane, with the internal cell membrane eventually becoming the nucleus. Whether any of these models turns out to be correct, the discovery of the Archaea as a separate prokaryotic domain has given rise to a fascinating field of research into evolutionary relationships.

ANALYSIS

Pre-passage blurb: The topic of the passage is single-celled organisms. Because the source is a popular science magazine, you’ll likely see descriptions of recent information or discoveries.

¶1: As expected, the passage will focus on what scientists are now learning about single-celled organisms.

¶2: This paragraph provides some background. Prior to the 1970s, scientists thought all life could be divided into two categories: eukaryotes (having a cell nucleus) and prokaryotes (lacking a cell nucleus). Back then, scientists didn’t make a distinction between prokaryotes and bacteria. But, in the 1970s, they realized there were two totally different kinds of prokaryotes: bacteria and archaea. Carl Woese, the scientist who discovered this, came up with the new three-domain system—Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya (encompassing the eukaryotes)—that scientists use now.

¶3: This paragraph gives three more recent discoveries. First, different species of archaea exist in all kinds of environments. Second, the prokaryotes that cause disease are almost all bacteria, not archaea. Third, scientists have learned more about the biochemical pathways used by archaea and bacteria.

¶4: Here, the author addresses what scientists don’t yet know about the three domains. Studying genes, it turns out that archaea have some things in common with bacteria but have other things in common with eukaryotes. As a result, scientists hypothesize that eukaryotes evolved from archaea.

¶5: If eukaryotes did come from archaea (which have no cell nucleus), the author says, the question of how eukaryotes got their cell nucleus is a “tantalizing mystery.” The author lays out three scientifically supported theories that might have the answer. The first says archaea slipped inside bacteria and became the nucleus. The second says archaea slowly developed nuclei. The third (and most recent) says archaea developed a second outer membrane and the internal membrane became the nucleus. The author sums up by saying that the discovery of the Archaea has led to the “fascinating” research into evolutionary relationships among the three domains.

1.

o

Big Picture

Main Idea: The discovery of three domains of life has led to interesting research in the evolutionary relationships among the domains.

Author’s Purpose: To explain the background of discoveries about archaea and bacteria and the current research in evolution to which those discoveries led

2. A

Difficulty: Easy

Category: Global

Strategic Advice: If all the choices begin with verbs, use the author’s tone to quickly eliminate choices.

Getting to the Answer: The tone of this passage is descriptive, not persuasive, so you can immediately eliminate (B), (C), and (D). The passage discusses the discovery of a new domain of one-celled organisms, the Archaea, confirming that (A) is the correct answer.

3. C

Difficulty: Medium

Category: Inference

Getting to the Answer: A small detail like “ribosomal RNA” may not be in your passage map, but three capital letters like “RNA” should stand out if you have to skim over the passage. Once you find it, read carefully and match the information in the passage to the choices. RNA appears in line 28. Woese used analysis of ribosomal RNA to separate the Bacteria from the Archaea. The preceding sentence says that Woese proposed his three-domain system based on the “degree of genetic relatedness among species” (lines 24—25). So ribosomal RNA must be a way of determining how related species are to each other. This matches (C).

(A), (B), and (D) are distortions of the information in the passage. Although ribosomal RNA did improve scientific understanding of the types of single-celled organisms, the text does not connect ribosomal RNA to the biochemistry of single-celled organisms, so (A) is incorrect. Ribosomal RNA is used to distinguish between the two types of one-celled organisms that do not have nuclei, not between those that have nuclei and those that do not, so (B) is incorrect. Although archaea were originally believed to be extremophiles, this view was discounted; moreover, it was never connected to ribosomal RNA. Eliminate (D).

4. C

Difficulty: Medium

Category: Command of Evidence

Getting to the Answer: The support to the previous question comes from the two sentences in lines 21-30. Choice (C) cites the first of these sentences and is thus the correct answer.

(A) and (B) have no connection to ribosomal RNA. (D) introduces the early thinking about archaea and again has no connection to ribosomal RNA.

5. D

Difficulty: Easy

Category: Vocab-in-Context

Getting to the Answer: Return to line 30, read the sentence it contains, and predict a word or phrase to replace “branches” that retains the original meaning of the sentence. That sentence says, “the . . . branches . . . form the basis of the . . . system of classification,” so “categories” would be a good prediction. This matches (D), the correct answer.

(A), (B), and (C) are alternative definitions of “branches” that do not make sense in the context of the passage. The text is not discussing branches of trees (boughs), branches of a business (offices), or branches of a club (chapters).

6. B

Difficulty: Hard

Category: Inference

Getting to the Answer: The evolutionary relationships among the three domains are discussed in paragraph 4, which begins with the sentence, “Despite our growing understanding of prokaryotes, the evolutionary relationships among the Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya are far from clear” (lines 49-53). The paragraph ends with the hypothesis that the Eukarya evolved from the Archaea, but that first sentence announces the author’s opinion of that hypothesis: it hasn’t been conclusively established. Eliminate (A). The author does seem to think that the stated hypothesis has evidence to support it: the Archaea are related to the Eukarya, and the Eukarya evolved later. Eliminate (C) and (D). The correct answer is therefore (B).

7. C

Difficulty: Hard

Category: Command of Evidence

Getting to the Answer: The evidence for the answer to the last question comes from several sentences in paragraph 4. The first sentence shows that the author thinks the hypothesis is not proven; that is found in lines 49-53, which corresponds to choice (C), the correct answer.

(A) is concerned with the three-domain system. (B) is about biochemistry, not genetic relatedness. (D) might be tricky: these lines describe one of the models of the evolution of the eukaryotic nucleus, and according to that model, the Eukarya evolved from the Archaea. But the author states no opinion in that sentence.

8. D

Difficulty: Medium

Category: Function

Getting to the Answer: Review your passage map and determine how the third paragraph contributes to the author’s overall purpose. A good map would note that the third paragraph provides information on the new domain of one-celled organisms, the Archaea. Archaea are defined in Lines 16—21as prokaryotes, so (D) is correct.

(A) is too narrow. Although the paragraph does note, and correct, the original thinking about archaea, it continues to provide other examples of new knowledge about prokaryotes. (B) is a subtle distortion of information in the passage. Although archaea were originally considered to be extremophiles, the text corrects that error. (C) is a faulty use of a detail from the passage. A contrast is drawn between bacteria and archaea, but this discussion is presented in the second paragraph, not the third.

9. B

Difficulty: Hard

Category: Detail

Getting to the Answer: This question contains two clues. First, the question refers to the similarities between the Archaea and Eukarya. Consult your passage notes to find that this clue sends you to the fourth paragraph. Second, the question asks why those similarities are important, so scan the fourth paragraph for the similarities between the Archaea and Eukarya and look for a word or phrase indicating a reason. The similarities are mentioned in lines 60-64, and the reason is introduced by the keyword “because” (line 67). The similarities are important because they indicate there may be an evolutionary connection between Archaea and Eukarya. Therefore, (B) is correct.

(A) is a distortion of information presented in the passage. Although archaea were originally thought to be extremophiles, the passage does not connect extreme environments to the origins of archaea. (C) and (D) are not discussed in the passage at all. The similarities between archaea and eukaryotes are not connected to the origin of the Bacteria, as in (C), nor to any limitation of the number of domains, as in (D).

10.B

Difficulty: Medium

Category: Vocab-in-Context

Getting to the Answer: Lines 78—80refer to “a number of competing models for how this structure might have evolved.” Substitute a different word that would make sense and use that word as your prediction. “Ideas” or “theories” would be good predictions. Choice (B) is a match and the correct answer.

(A), (C), and (D) are alternative definitions of “models” that do not fit the context. (A) might be tricky. The word ideals indicates a high standard to be aimed at; it does not have the same meaning as “ideas.”

11.A

Difficulty: Easy

Category: Detail

Getting to the Answer: The eukaryotic nucleus is discussed in the last paragraph. A quick skim shows that the “syntrophic model” is mentioned in line 85. The sentence states that according to this model, “archaea slipped inside bacterial cells and eventually became those cells’ nuclei” (lines 86-88). So the eukaryotic cell arose from the two types of prokaryotic cells according to this model, making (A) correct.

(B) is incorrect because the theory that involves viruses is the controversial one that the author chooses not to describe. (C) refers to the second and third theories that are described, not the syntrophic model. Similarly, (D) refers to the third theory, not the syntrophic model.